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of the mountain mass is about 100 miles: in their more eastern portion, the breadth is considerably greater, and between the 9th and 13th meridians, is from 120 to 130 miles. The Alps are highest in their western part, where the crest of the range has an average elevation of between 8,000 and 9,000 feet; Mount Blanc, their loftiest summit, is 15,730 feet in elevation, and is (if we except the border chain of Mount Caucasus) the highest mountain in Europe. Many other summits in this part of the range exceed 12,000 feet in height. The more eastern portion of the Alps have an average elevation of between 6,000 and 7,000 feet; but through their entire course numerous summits exceed 10,000 feet in height, and rise above the limits of perpetual snow, the line of which is here between 8,000 and 9,000 feet above the sea-level. The descent of the Alps is more rapid towards Italy than towards the north, on which side they form elevated plains and high mountain valleys."

It will be observed that the horizontal outline or form of the range is given first. The elevation follows, and the comprehensive figure is finally determined by the description of the slope on each side. The author afterwards proceeds to describe the passes, which still farther contribute to the figure, and chime in with, or support, the assigned elevation of the peaks. He then adverts to the most prominent of the constituent features of the Alps—the glaciers, which he describes on the same system of comprehensive type and detailed enumer

ation.

See also Extracts TII., VIII., IX., Appendix.

7. II. The description may follow the Succession of Aspects disclosed to a spectator surveying the whole.

In those cases where the object cannot be comprehended in one view, or from one position, it may be described in the order of actual presentation. By such adaptation to the natural method of observing, a strong feeling of reality is given to the picture. The panoramic view is an obvious example.

This may also be called the Traveller's point of view. Out of the vastness and variety of the world, it aims at presenting only what the mind can embrace; if inadequate, it is at least. intelligible. As the traveller's route may be so conducted as to exhaust and comprehend an entire object or scene, so likewise

THE TRAVELLER'S POINT OF VIEW.

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may be the description. The precaution requisite in this case is to shift the point of view decidedly and avowedly, and not to mingle successive aspects of the panorama.

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The advantages of the Traveller's point of view have led to its being adopted as a mode of fiction. The genius of Defoe stands out distinguished in this kind of representation. His Voyage round the World" sets forth all the aspects and incidents of a seafaring and trading life exactly as they would have met the eye of any one on ship-board. Arthur Helps constructs an imaginary voyage to present more vividly the country and the customs of the Indians on the Pearl Coast (Spanish Conquest in America, vol. ii., p. 123). Goldsmith's Traveller is an example in poetry. See also a short passage quoted on p. 94.

It is useful to combine with other modes of describing a town and its environs, the panoramic prospect from some lofty position, as Athens from the Pnyx.

8. III. A description is more easily and fully realized when made individual, that is, presented under all the conditions of a particular moment of time.

As the mind, even when supposed to entertain an abstraction, must have a concrete instance in view, anything that helps to suggest our concrete experience adds to the force of description.

All scenes whatsoever are beheld under a certain light, and at a certain hour of the day. Many things are liable to changing aspects in themselves; the sea is smooth, rippled, or piled up in breakers; the face of nature generally has its varieties according to season; the plant, as seen in the concrete, is at some definite stage of its growth; the animal is in some posture, or performing some act, characteristic of the moment. Now we can more easily picture to ourselves an object when individualized to the full, as it appears in a given instant of time, than when the individualizing features are made an abstraction.

As our mental conception of the visible world is a compound of form and color, these must be sufficiently given in any

description. The form is perhaps the least laborious to conceive; hence what vivifies the picture is an indication of the color; as a "brown visage," a "scarlet lip," "the deep blue sky,"

""the amber stream." When, by metonymy, the material is used for the thing made of it—as, "the cold steel"—the effect of the figure is due to its suggesting surface and color.

Next to color is posture or attitude, or the momentary aspect of the thing described; as in the following from the Odyssey :

"He ceased; the whole assembly silent sat,

Charmed into ecstasy with his discourse,
Throughout the twilight hall."

Some accompanying action also gives individuality. Another principle is here involved, belonging to the art of poetical description,—namely, that language is suited to express action better than still life. Thus, in Suckling's Bride:—

"Her feet beneath her petticoat,

Like little mice, stole in and out."

A river in motion is either quick or slow, uniform or interrupted with rapids, muddy or clear; and the indicating of those features makes the description individual or concrete: "the sluggish Ouse."

An interior is more vividly pictured, when a moment is chosen, and the characteristic attitude and movements are pointed out :—

"For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn,
Nor busy housewife ply her evening care;
No children run to lisp their sire's return,

Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share."

9. TV. Associated circumstances are an aid to description.

Thus, although form and color are the pictorial basis of the external world, the modifications of these suggest many other properties. For example, we have an inseparable association. (accounted by some an instinct) between certain visible appearances and the distances and real magnitudes of things. Wherefore it is possible to aid the visible representation by the men

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ASSOCIATED CIRCUMSTANCES.

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tion of these allied facts; as, "the distant hills," "the landscape shining near."

We may also use more casual associations; as, "the solitary peaks," "a place where only mountain sheep could be at home," "the town stands high and windy."

10. The associated human feelings are often adduced in describing objects, especially in poetry.

The feelings of common utility are reflected from many things, and help to describe them; as, a cheerful home, a comfortless den, a dainty repast, a toilsome ascent, a pitiless storm.

The associations with the various emotions of Fine Art are still more frequently introduced to vivify the pictorial representation of nature. Hence such epithets as grand, imposing, solemn, awe-inspiring, soul-subduing, dreary, gloomy, gay, animated, cheerful, beautiful. We speak of a comical face, a noble pile, a terrible abyss, a sublime peak.

The picture of Dover cliff is principally made up of associated feelings.

"Come on, sir, here's the place—stand still. How dreadful

And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low I"

"I'll look no more,

Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight
Topple down headlong."

The intermediate portion—"The crows and choughs, &C."assigns the associated circumstances of diminished size, to express great remoteness.

As each person mingles self with all outward regards, and as the object world cannot, in the concrete, be separated from a subject mind; the acts, feelings, and thoughts of an observer,

real or supposed, have an individualizing effect in description. "Turning with easy eye, thou may'st behold."

11. The particulars of a description may sometimes support each other.

As mountains, valleys, and rivers are naturally inseparable, they are thereby mutually suggestive. The description of a valley implies the sides of the enclosing mountains; while the

branchings and course of a river determine the valleys. The separate detail of the three parts, therefore, though appearing only to fill up the description, in reality repeats it from different points of view; and each part supports and confirms the others.

Another case of mutual support is the harmonious combination of the different methods of description. The method of Plan and Enumeration (I) may be followed up by the Traveller's point of view (II). If the two are managed so as to fit well together, the result is highly favorable to the ease and vividness of the picture. In like manner, the associated particulars confirm the literal delineation.

If such additional and supporting particulars are not justified by the difficulty or the importance of the subject, they fall under the censure of redundancy.

12. The description of the feelings and thoughts of the mind—sometimes called the Subject World, as opposed to the Object or Extended World-has, to a certain extent, a method of its own.

I. The description of the feelings may be effected by means of the proper vocabulary of mind; as, pleasure, love, rage, fear, unconcern, trust, hope.

Every language provides terms for describing the feelings of the mind; and the English language owns an extensive stock of such. To make known a feeling, therefore, we, in the first instance, look for the suitable name in this department of our vocabulary. We can express a large number of mental states by names appropriated to them. Hunger, repletion, cold, exhilaration, intoxication, ennui, sweetness, charm, pungency, bitterness, wonder, sorrow, despair, melancholy, depression, are a few additional examples.

We attain a more exact delineation of the feelings by assigning a genus and a specific difference; a "faint pleasure," "strong affection," "noble rage," "intense curiosity."

13. Intellectual processes have also a language of

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