Although this dial, drawn for the latitude of Catana, which was different from that of Rome, could not show the hours justly, yet, as imperfect as it was, the Romans conformed to it for the space of ninety-nine years, till Quintus Marcus Philippus, who was censor with Paulus Æmilius, gave them another more exact. This, of all the acts of his censorship, was that which obtained him the greatest applause. These sorts of clocks were of use only in the day, and in clear weather. Scipio Nasica, five years afterwards, in the year of Rome 595, first brought into use, and passed under cover a water-clock, which shewed the hours equally by day and night. There were twelve in the day, and as many in the night, without distinction of seasons.

Vitruvius attributes the invention of water-clocks to Cresibius, a native of Alexandria, who lived under the first two Ptolemies. The Romans had different kinds of them, which marked the hours in different ways. They called them horologium hibernum, winter clock, and sometimes also horologium nocturnum, night clock, in opposition to the dials, which were of no use in the night, and of very little in winter, when the rays of the sun are often intercepted by clouds.

To form an idea of these clocks, we may conceive a pretty large basin, filled with water, which, by a little hole contrived in the bottom, emptied itself into another vessel of nearly the same capacity, in the space of twelve hours; and where the water rising gradually, brought up perpendicularly, a bit of cork, or the figure of a genius pointing to the hours, which were marked one above the other on columns or pilasters.

Their clocks were different from those which the ancients called clepsydra. This was a glass filled with water, of a pyramidal figure, formed in a cone. The base was pierced, the upper orifice being very narrow, and lengthened into a point; on the water swam a piece of cork bearing a needle to mark the hours, traced along the vase, by descending gradually as it ran out.

Dials, clepsydras, and water clocks, were all the Romans knew. They were ignorant of the use of clocks with wheels. As useful as they are, many ages passed before the art of making them was even discovered. We are still uncertain of the time of this invention and of the name of the author. The present which the Caliph Haroun Al Raschid made to Charlemagne of a striking clock, was looked on as a wonder. Eginard says, that it was a water-clock which marked the hours by the fall of some balls of metal upon a bell, and by some figures of men, which opened and shut certain doors contrived in the clock according to the number of the hours.

According to the Roman method of computing time, in summer the hours of the day were longer, and in winter shorter, than those of the night. The first began at sun-rise, the sixth at mid-day, and the twelfth at sun-set; then began the first hour of the night, of which the sixth was at midnight, and the twelfth at sun-rise.

Under the emperors, they began to perceive that this distribution was not convenient. By little and little, they introduced the manner of counting the twenty-four hours from midnight to midnight. It appears that this custom had already obtained in the time of Adrian. All the world knows that it is generally received in Europe, except among the Italians, who reckon the day from sun-set to sun-set, and the whole twenty-four hours successively.

The Romans employed the first hour of the day in the most essential duties of religion. The temples were open to all the world, and even often lighted before the dawn of day, for the accommodation of the most early worshippers. The homage they there paid to the gods consisted in adoring and invoking them by public and private prayers; in offering sacrifices, incense, and perfumes; and in chaunting hymns, which the youth of both sexes, and of the first families, sung, morning and evening, in their praise, to the sound of instruments.

Yet they gave not to the gods alone the first hours of the morning; they were also employed in paying those reciprocal duties, received and authorized in the world. At Rome, as elsewhere, the little paid their court to the great, the people to the magistrates, and the magistrates to the rich. To consider only the ordinary duties of a citizen, it appears that the greatest number employed the morning in the temples, the palaces of the great, in the forum, at the bar, and in the general transaction of their affairs; and that they devoted the rest of the day to visits and assemblies, to the walks and baths, to feasting and pleasure, to the care of health and exercises; amongst others, to that of the hand-ball and tennis.

The whole concluded about the eighth or ninth hour, that is, about three in the afternoon; and then every one repaired in haste to the private or public baths. It was natural that there should be more liberty conceded to the private baths, which, of course, belonged to individual owners; but the public baths were opened by the ringing of a bell always at the same hour; and those who came too late, ran the risk of bathing in cold water.

ON THE PROGRESS OF THE MEXICAN REVOLUTION. (Continued from page 99.)

CAMPAIGN OF MORELOS.

AFTER the death of Hidalgo, the insurgents were split into factions, and acknowledging no common chief, and having no single point of union, their disjointed forces were exposed to be routed in detail by the combined movements of the royalist generals. The remnant of Hidalgo's army submitted to the authority of Rayon, but his power was not recognized

He saw the imperious

by any other portion of the revolted Creoles. necessity of concentrating into the hand of an individual, or into the hands of some duly appointed committee, the superintendence and controul of the general interests; and with this view he determined to appoint a national junta, to be elected by some form of popular voting. Having matured his plan, he selected the town of Zitacuaro, in the state of Valladolid, as the best residence for this assembly, and carried the measure into effect about the end of May, 1811, by confiding the central government to five members, chosen by the most influential farmers in the neighbourhood, in conjunction with the ayuntamiento of the town. Immediately on their installation, they proposed terms of peace to the viceroy, which were rejected, and a further appeal to arms now became necessary.

There now appeared on the stage the famous Don José Maria Morelos, curate of Nucupetaro, an old college friend of Hidalgo, who, as stated in our February number, had entrusted his associate with the command of the whole south-western coast. This extraordinary man undertook this commission, accompanied by only five servants armed with muskets, and yet, within one year, he succeeded in capturing the important city of Acapulco. We shall condense the narrative of his exploits from the very faithful account published by Mr. Ward, in his valuable work on Mexico, a work, however, the usefulness of which is greatly limited by its price, but which we cordially recommend to all who can afford to make this addition in their library.

The first persons of rank who joined the standard of Morelos, were Don José, and Don Antonio Galeana, and their adhesion swelled the number of his followers to one thousand men. The rapidity of his successes soon rendered him the terror of the Spaniards and the admiration of the Creoles. Each victory augmented his army, and inspired his adherents with confidence in the talents of their leader. Morelos, certainly, was indebted to his ecclesiastical character for obtaining the support of so many of the common people, and so powerful was this influence that Calleja called him, in one of his dispatches to the viceroy, "a second Mahomet." But it was owing to his personal merits that he attracted the esteem of men of the highest ranks, such as the Bravos and Victoria, who willingly served under him; nor were they jealous at Morelos having nominated the curate Matamoros as his first lieutenant.

The whole of the year 1811 was occupied by a series of petty engagements, during which time Morelos and his officers used the most strenuous exertions to introduce military discipline among the blacks, who had enlisted in great numbers. In 1812, the patriotic forces arrived at Tasco, within twenty-five leagues of Mexico, and the advanced guard, under Bravo, pushed on to Chalco, with outposts at San Augustin de las Cuevas, within three leagues of the gates of Mexico. The viceroy, alarmed for

the safety of the capital, summoned Calleja to its defence, and Morelos had now to encounter this skilful general, with the troops that had triumphed over the first insurgents at Aculco and the bridge of Calderon. Morelos, though flushed with new successes, resolved not to advance on the capital, but to take up a position at Cuautla Amilpas, about twentytwo leagues from Mexico, and there await the arrival of his formidable opponent. This town he fortified with great care in the interior, though he threw up no outworks; he cut trenches in all the streets; walled up the doors and the lower windows of all the houses; and broke a communication within, so as to give his men every advantage.

Before Calleja approached Cuautla Amilpas, he deemed it expedient to dissolve the junta established by Rayon at Zitacuaro, for the political influence of this body was even more formidable than the army of Morelos. On the 1st of January, 1812, Calleja arrived before the town, and on the second day he attacked and carried it by assault. The junta escaped; but Calleja wreaked his vengeance on the people by decimating the inhabitants, and burning the whole town, excepting only the churches and convents. From thence he proceeded to Mexico, into which he made a triumphal entry, and on the 14th of February commenced his march towards Cuautla Amilpas, which he threatened with the fate of Zitacuaro.

On the approach of the royalists, Morelos went out, with a small escort to reconnoitre them, and was nearly captured for his imprudence. He was, however, saved by Galeana, who sallied out in person to his rescue, on which occasion Don José Maria Fernandez, now General Victoria, first distinguished himself. Morelos, however, had the satisfaction of witnessing the courage and discipline of his men, who bravely and unflinchingly, and hand to hand, attacked troops who advanced against them with the character of invincibles. On the next day, Calleja made a general assault on the town with his whole army divided into four columns, his artillery being in the centre, with full confidence of gaining an easy victory, for Cuautla Amilpas was not nearly so strong as Zitacuaro. Morelos allowed the enemy to approach to within one hundred yards of the entrenchments, in the Plaza of San Diego; but there he opened so tremendous a fire, that the column was compelled to retreat with precipitancy. Galeana here distinguished himself, by engaging a Spanish colonel, who commanded in the Plaza, in single combat, and killing him on the spot, an exploit which greatly contributed to raise the spirit of the Mexicans. This action lasted from seven in the morning till three in the afternoon, when Calleja was compelled to retire, leaving five hundred men dead on the spot.

Calleja now saw the hopelessness of carrying the town by a coup-demain, and determining to lay siege to it in regular form, wrote to Venegas, the viceroy, for additional supplies of artillery, ammunition, and troops.

The magazines of the capital were totally emptied and placed at the disposal of Calleja, and Brigadier Llano was ordered to join the army of the centre with his whole division. This junction did not take place before the 1st of March, for Llano, when he received the viceroy's commands, was engaged in attacking the town of Izucar, which was successfully defended by Don Vicente Guerrero. In the course of the revolution, this famous Mexican leader had received upwards of fifty wounds, and had had almost as many wonderful escapes from death. One of the most extraordinary, mentioned by Mr. Ward, occurred at Izucar. Guerrero was asleep, exhausted by fatigue, when a small shell came through the roof of the house in which he was, and rolled under his bed, where it exploded, and killed or wounded every person in the room but himself.

As soon as Calleja had received his reinforcements, he began to cannonade the town, for such was his activity that he erected batteries and breast-works in the course of a single night. The first shells alarmed the inhabitants greatly, but they became at last so indifferent to the balls and bullets, that the women and children were employed to pick them up in the streets, and for which Morelos paid them a fixed price per dozen. This siege completed the reputation of Morelos, for Calleja was baffled in all his attempts, nor did he ever obtain any advantage either by open force or strategical manœuvres. But a secret enemy soon appeared within the walls: Cuatla had never been properly supplied with provisions, and famine now prevailed to a horrible extent. Maize was almost the only sustenance of the men : a cat sold for six dollars; a lizard for two; and rats and other vermin for one. An ox, which was seen one day feeding between the Spanish camp and the town, nearly brought on a general engagement, for the troops, forgetful of discipline, sallied out in the hope of securing so rich a prize. Under these circumstances, Morelos was compelled to evacuate the town, and as his men were too enfeebled to force their way through the Spanish lines, it was resolved that they should retreat by stratagem. This design was executed with equal talent and success, for the whole army, on the night of the 2d of May, passed between the batteries of Calleja and Llano, and reached Izucar with the loss of only seventeen men, among whom unfortunately was Don Leonardo Bravo.

Calleja did not enter Cuautla till some hours after Morelos had quitted it; so apprehensive was he of some new stratagem. The cruelties he exercised on the inhabitants have left an indelible stain upon his memory. After perpetrating every possible excess of vengeance he returned to the capital, and published a flaming report of his exploits; but the public knew that he had been repulsed, and at last outwitted, by Morelos. Meanwhile Matamoros had completely organized the insurgent army, who soon again took the field and defeated the Spanish forces in several engagements. Morelos then resolved on his famous expedition against