of ab

complex ideas: unless a man will fill his head with a company stract complex ideas, which others having no names for, he has nothing to do with, but to lay by, and forget again. I confess, that in the beginning of languages, it was necessary to have the idea, before one gave it the name and so it is still, where making a new complex idea, one also, by giving it a new name, makes a new word. But this concerns not languages made, which have generally pretty well provided for ideas, which men have frequently occasion to have, and communicate: and in such, I ask, whether it be not the ordinary method, that children learn the names of mixed nodes, before they have their ideas? What one of a thousand ever frames the abstract ideas of glory and ambition, before he has heard the names of them? In simple ideas and substances, I grant it is otherwise; which being such ideas as have a real existence and union in nature, the ideas and names are got one before the other, as it happens.

§ 16. Reason of my being so large on this subject.—What has been said here of mixed modes, is, with very little difference, applicable also to relations; which, since every man himself may observe, I may spare myself the pains to enlarge on: especially, since what I have here said concerning words in this third book, will possibly be thought by some to be much more than what so slight a subject required. I allow, it might be brought into a narrower compass: but I was willing to stay my reader on an argument that appears to me new, and a little out of the way (I am sure it is one I thought not of, when I began to write); that by searching it to the bottom, and turning it on every side, some part or other might meet with every one's thoughts, and give occasion to the most averse, or negligent, to reflect on a general miscarriage; which, though of great consequence, is little taken notice of. When it is considered, what a pudder is made about essences, and how much all sorts of knowledge, discourse, and conversation, are pestered and disordered by the careless and confused use and application of words, it will, perhaps, be thought worth while thoroughly to lay it open. And I shall be pardoned if I have dwelt long on an argument which, I think, therefore, needs to be inculcated; because the faults men are usually guilty of in this kind, are not only the greatest hinderances of true knowledge; but are so well thought of, as to pass for it. Men would often see what a small pittance of reason and truth, or possibly none at all, is mixed with those huffing opinions they are swelled with; if they would but look beyond fashionable sounds, and observe what ideas are, or are not, comprehended under those words, with which they are so armed at all points, and with which they so confidently lay about them. I shall imagine I have done some service to truth, peace, and learning, if, by an enlargement on this subject, I can make men reflect on their own use of language; and give them reason to suspect, that since it is frequent for others, it may also be possible for them, to have sometimes very good and approved words in their mouths, and writings, with very uncertain, little, or no siguification. And, therefore, it is not unreasonable for them to be wary herein themselves, and not to be unwilling to have them examined by others. With this design, therefore, I shall go on with what I have farther to say, concerning this matter.

CHAP. VI.

OF THE NAMES OF SUBSTANCES.

§ 1. The common names of substances stand for sorts.-The common names of substances, as well as other general terms, stand for sorts; which is nothing else but the being made signs of such complex ideas, wherein several particular substances do, or might, agree, by virtue of which, they are capable of being comprehended in one common conception, and signified by one name. I say, do or might agree: for though there be but one sun existing in the world, yet the idea of it being abstracted, so that more substances (if there were several) might each agree in it; it is as much a sort, as if there were as many suns as there are stars. They want not their reasons, who think there are, and that each fixed star would answer the idea the name sun stands for, to one who was placed in a due distance; which, by the way, may shew us how much the sorts, or, if you please, genera and species of things (for those Latin terms signify to me no more than the English word sort), depend on such collections of ideas as men have made; and not on the real nature of things: since it is not impossible, but that, in propriety of speech, that might be a sun to one, which is a star to another.

§ 2. The essence of each sort is the abstract idea.-The measure and boundary of each sort, or species, whereby it is constituted that particular sort, and distinguished from others, is that we call its essence, which is nothing but that abstract idea to which the name is annexed: so that every thing contained in that idea is essential to that sort. This, though it be all the essence of natural substances that we know, or by which we distinguish them into sorts; yet I call it by a peculiar name, the nominal essence, to distinguish it from that real constitution of substances, upon which depends this nominal essence, and all the properties of that sort, which, therefore, as has been said, may be called the real essence: v. g. the nominal essence of gold, is that complex idea the word gold stands for, let it be, for instance, a body yellow, of a certain weight, malleable, fusible, and fixed. But the real essence, is the constitution of the insensible parts of that body, on which those qualities, and all the other properties of gold, depend. How far these two are different, though they are both called essence, is obvious, at first sight, to discover.

§3. The nominal and real essence different.-For though, perhaps, voluntary motion, with sense and reason, joined to a body of a certain shape, be the complex idea to which I, and others, annex the name man; and so be the nominal essence of the species so called; yet nobody will say, that that complex idea is the real essence and source of all those operations, which are to be found in any individual of that sort. The foundation of all those qualities, which are the ingredients of our complex idea, is something quite different and had we such a knowledge of that constitution of man, from which his faculties of moving, sensation, and reasoning, and other powers flow, and on which his so regular shape depends, as it is possible angels have, and it is certain his

Maker has, we should have a quite other idea of his essence, than what now is contained in our definition of that species, be it what it will: and our idea of any individual man would be as far different from what it is now, as is his who knows all the springs and wheels, and other contrivances within, of the famous clock at Strasburgh, from that which a gazing countryman has of it, who barely sees the motion of the hand, and hears the clock strike, and observes only some of the outward appearances.

§ 4. Nothing essential to individuals.-That essences, in the ordinary use of the word, relates to sorts, and that it is considered in particular beings no farther than, as they are ranked into sorts, appears from hence; that take but away the abstract ideas, by which we sort individuals, and rank them under common names, and then the thought of any thing essential to any of them, instantly vanishes: we have no notion of the one, without the other; which plainly shews their relation. It is necessary for me to be as I am; God and nature has made me so; but there is nothing I have is essential to me. An accident, or disease, may very much alter my colour, or shape; a fever, or fall, may take away my reason, or memory, or both; and an apoplexy, leave neither sense nor understanding, no, nor life. Other creatures of my shape may be made with more and better, and fewer and worse, faculties than I have; and others may have reason and sense in a shape and body very different from mine. Neither of these are essential to the one, or the other, or to any individual whatsoever, till the mind refers it to some sort or species of things; and then presently, according to the abstract idea of that sort, something is found essential. Let any one examine his own thoughts, and he will find, that as soon as he supposes or speaks of essential, the consideration of some species, or the complex idea signified by some general name, comes into his mind; and it is in reference to that, that this or that quality is said to be essential. So that if it be asked, whether it be essential to me, or any other particular corporeal being, to have reason? I say no; no more than it is essential to this white thing I write on, to have words in it. But if that particular being be to be counted of the sort man, and to have the name man given it, then reason is essential to it, supposing reason to be a part of the complex idea the name man stands for: as it is essential to this thing I write on to contain words, if I will give it the name treatise, and rank it under that species. So that essential, and not essential, relate only to our abstract ideas, and the names annexed to them; which amounts to no more but this, that whatever particular thing has not in it those qualities, which are contained in the abstract ideas, which any general terms stand for, cannot be ranked under that species, nor be called by that name, since that abstract idea is the very essence of that species.

§ 5. Thus, if the idea of body, with some people, be bare extension or space, then solidity is not essential to body; if others make the idea to which they give the name body, to be solidity and extension, then solidity is essential to body. That, therefore, and that alone, is considered as essential, which makes a part of the complex idea the name of a sort stands for, without which, no particular thing can be reckoned of

that sort, nor be entitled to that name. Should there be found a parcel of matter that had all the other qualities that are in iron, but wanted obedience to the loadstone; and would neither be drawn by it, nor receive direction from it, would any one question whether it wanted any thing essential? It would be absurd to ask, whether a thing really existing, wanted any thing essential to it? Or could it be demanded, whether this made an essential or specific difference, or no; since we have no other measure of essential or specific, but our abstract ideas? And to talk of specific differences in nature, without reference to general ideas and names, is to talk unintelligibly. For I would ask any one, what is sufficient to make an essential difference in nature, between any two particular beings, without any regard had to some abstract idea, which is looked upon as the essence and standard of a species? All such patterns and standards, being quite laid aside, particular beings considered barely in themselves, will be found to have all their qualities equally essential; and every thing, in each individual, will be essential to it, or, which is more, nothing at all. For though it may be reasonable to ask, whether obeying the magnet, be essential to iron? yet, I think, it is very improper and insignificant to ask, whether it be essential to the particular parcel of matter I cut my pen with, without considering it under the name iron, or as being of a certain species? And if, as has been said, our abstract ideas, which have names annexed to them, are the boundaries of species, nothing can be essential but what is contained in those ideas.

§ 6. It is true, I have often mentioned a real essence, distinct in substances, from those abstract ideas of them, which I call their nominal essence. By this real essence, I mean, that real constitution of any thing, which is the foundation of all those properties that are combined in, and are constantly found to co-exist with, the nominal essence; that particular constitution which every thing has within itself, without any relation to any thing without it. But essence, even in this sense, relates to a sort, and supposes a species: for being that real constitution on which the properties depend, it necessarily supposes a sort of things, properties belonging only to species, and not to individuals; v. g. supposing the nominal essence of gold, to be body of such a peculiar colour and weight, with malleability and fusibility, the real essence is that constitution of the parts of matter on which these qualities, and their union, depend; and is also the foundation of its solubility in aqua regia, and other properties accompanying that complex idea. Here are essences and properties, but all upon supposition of a sort, or general abstract idea, which is considered as immutable: but there is no individual parcel of matter, to which any of these qualities are so annexed, as to be essential to it, or inseparable from it. Indeed as to the real essences of substances, we only suppose their being, without precisely knowing what they are but that which annexes them still to the species, is the nominal essence, of which they are the supposed foundation and cause.

$7. The nominal essence bounds the species.-The next thing to be considered is, by which of those essences it is, that substances are determined into sorts, or species; and that, it is evident, is by the nominal essence. For it is that alone, that the name, which is the mark of the

sort, signifies. It is impossible, therefore, that any thing should determine the sorts of things, which we rank under general names, but that idea, which that name is designed as a mark for; which is that, as has been shewn, which we call nominal essence. Why do we say, this is a horse, and that a mule; this is an animal, that an herb? How comes any particular thing to be of this or that sort, but because it has that nominal essence, or, which is all one, agrees to that abstract idea, that name is annexed to? And I desire any one but to reflect on his own thoughts, when he hears or speaks any of those, or other names of substances, to know what sort of essences they stand for.

§ 8. And that the species of things to us, are nothing but the ranking them under distinct names, according to the complex ideas in us, and not according to precise, distinct, real essences in them, is plain from hence, that we find many of the individuals that are ranked into one sort, called by one common name, and so received as being of one species, have yet qualities depending on their real constitutions, as far different one from another, as from others, from which they are accounted to differ specifically. This, as it is easy to be observed by all who have to do with natural bodies; so chemists especially are often, by sad experience, convinced of it, when they sometimes in vain seek for the same qualities in one parcel of sulphur, antimony, or vitriol, which they have found in others. For though they are bodies of the same species, having the same nominal essence, under the same name; yet do they often, upon severe ways of examination, betray qualities so different one from another, as to frustrate the expectation and labour of very wary chemists. But if things were distinguished into species, according to their real essences, it would be as impossible to find different properties in any two individual substances of the same species, as it is to find different properties in two circles, or two equilateral triangles. That is properly the essence to us, which determines every particular to this or that classis; or, which is the same thing, to this or that general name and what can that be else, but that abstract idea to which that name is annexed? And so has, in truth, a reference, not so much to the being of particular things, as to their general denominations.

§ 9. Not the real essence, which we know not.-Nor indeed can we rank and sort things, and consequently (which is the end of sorting) denominate them by their real essences, because we know them not. Our faculties carry us no farther towards the knowledge and distinction of substances, than a collection of those sensible ideas, which we observe in them; which however made with the greatest diligence and exactness we are capable of, yet is more remote from the true internal constitution, from which those qualities flow, than, as I said, a countryman's idea is from the inward contrivance of that famous clock at Strasburgh, whereof he only sees the outward figure and motions. There is not so contemptible a plant or animal, that does not confound the most enlarged understanding. Though the familiar use of things about us, take off our wonder, yet it cures not our ignorance. When we come to examine the stones we tread on, or the iron we daily handle, we presently find we know not their make; and can give no reason of