420 Siege of Rouen.-Abuses in Hospitals. assign it to the same period as the Harleian copies of the Chronicle, which it in other respects greatly resembles. I may as well also take this opportunity of correcting a mistake in the notes to the Poem, p. 396, in which Dr. Meyrick's explanation of the word aguillettes has been misinterpreted. According to this gentleman, the term did not signify "the circular plates attached by straps to the shoulders" (which would be confounding it with ailettes), but the tags attached to the pieces of silken cord by which the circular plates, called palettes, were fastened," and often used to express the whole point, i. e. both tag and strap. See note on "the Battle of Agincourt," p. clxxxvi. Dr. M. therefore does not here differ from Goodwin, but only from the translator of Monstrelet. FREDERIC MADDEN. HERE is a practice at our public Hospitals in England, which every lover of humanity and decency would gladly see abolished, and which I shall take the liberty of offering to the public notice, at a time when various plans of medical reform are in agitation. I allude to the brutal custom of performing all the most delicate operations, even on young females, in the open theatre of the hospital, surrounded by from two to three hundred young men, who are frequently found amusing themselves with the awkwardness and expressions of offended delicacy manifested by the unhappy sufferer, and whose jokes, considering that among such a number there must be some careless and idle students, cannot always be suppressed. In the first place, this custom is as useless as it is indelicate, as there are many other opportunities of seeing the same operations performed in a quieter way. 2dly. The knowledge of this and other facts of a similar kind, operate to prevent respectable persons from sending females to hospitals at all, and thus the sphere of the utility of these excellent [May, institutions is contracted. 3dly. The conversion of hospitals into schools of medicine and surgery, is quite foreign to the object of their benevolent founders; and the governors of the hospitals are guilty of a breach of trust, if, in permitting the innovation for the sake of public good, they do not see that humanity and decency are strictly observed. Another evil, and a great one it is, which results from the publicity of operations, is this, that a spirit of chirurgical enterprise is created, which prompts ambitious surgeons to venture on useless, difficult, and dangerous operations, to the detriment of life and limb in many cases, and in all tending to injure the integrity of the medical character. What would the pious almoners and Catholic founders of our excellent hospitals have said to the butchering scenes of which I have been a witness! And what would not mediæval chastity and the sisterhoods of charity, of the age in which our hospitals were founded, have felt, on seeing a young and perhaps modest girl of nineteen dragged out, to submit to a delicate operation, into an amphitheatre full of young giggling surgeons. Such scenes as these (and such are not uncommon) of outraged delicacy, to which all the pain of an operation is but a fleabite, coupled with the proposed plan for selling the bodies of the poor, pass a silent but powerful satire on the degeneracy of modern charity, and which, though less clamorous, will, when fairly exposed, be found more effective than the noisy ribaldry of modern reformers, or the cant of ostentatious philanthropists. And as a means of effecting a reform much wanted in hospitals, by placing them under some sort of legislative surveillance, I beg the favour of you to insert this in an early number of your Magazine, so long celebrated for the moral principles it has advocated, and the able hands by which its columns have been filled. The French Clergy at one time attempted to prevent similar abuses in the Paris hospitals, on the ground that they were contrary to Christian charity. And indeed our ancestors did very well without those abuses of hospital practice, which a false estimation of the utility of refined surgery has induced some persons ignorantly to defend. MEDICUS. 1 ་ 1829.] F [ 421 ] REVIEW OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. Signs and Symbols, illustrated and explained, in three courses of Lectures on the History of Initiation. By George Oliver, Vicar of Clee, P. G. Chaplain for the County of Lincoln. Vol. II. 8vo, pp. 277. REEMASONRY has been deduced by writers belonging to the Order, from latent history, connected with the foundation of the Temple of Solomon; but by the uninitiated has been flatly declared to have no real pretensions more remote than the Middle Ages, when it is first directly recognized in History. The subject has frequently occupied our attention, and we have found analogies which tend to vindicate its claim to a very early date. Either it has that claim, or has adopted practices of unquestionable ancientry. The substance of our research is as follows, and it might be extended much further, and rendered more satisfactory, if the secret rites could be made public. Preston, in his " Illustrations of Masonry," has given a very curious account of the Society, compiled for the information of King Henry the Sixth. In this ancient and singular document Freemasonry is stated to have appeared among the first men of the East, and to have been acquired in Egypt by Pythagoras. This hint induced us to examine the biographical history of that sage, that we might discover conformities which would support the allegation. Of the antiquity of Masonry in Egypt, as an operative art, connected with sciences, there can be no dispute. That fact does not, how ever, include the mysterious forms and ceremonies, which Freemasonry implies, as having been united with the profession of the architect. To these forms and ceremonies our attention was therefore in particular directed, and we found the following coincidences. Pythagoras, says Diogenes Laertius, descended into the Adyta in Egypt,' και τα περι θεών εν απορρήτοις εμαθεν, and learned unspeakable things concerning the Gods*. He had previously been initiated in nearly all the Greek and Barbarian mysteries +. The mysterious things, therefore, taught by Pythagoras, P. 569. ed. Henr. Steph. LXXXXIIII. + Id. 568. it is fair to infer, might be found also in those ancient rites which he had studied. Now Pythagoras, says the same author, was especially studious of cultivating friendship. Upon that virtue he laid the greatest stress, and if any one learned to hold communion with him by using his symbols, he immediately made him a friend and companion ; ἱκανος τε γαρ ἦν φιλιας ἐργατης βολων αὐτου κεκοινωνηκοτα υθις τε προστα τε άλλα, και εἴ τινα πυθοιτο των συμηταιρίζετο, και φίλον κατεσκευαζεν τ Here then we have a school of philosophers founded upon the excellent basis of brotherly love, and the use of symbols known only to themselves. Such is one coincidence.-Freemasonry admits no females into the order. This was an express institute of the philosopher of Crotona. Here is another coincidence.-But as he also taught that all things were not to be revealed to all men, to the use of symbols he also added secresy. This is a third coincidence, and it is further elucidated in the Life of Pythagoras by Chalmers §, from Brucker, "The Egyptians believed the secresy, which they observed to be recommended to them by the example of their gods, who would never be seen by mortals, but through the obscurity of shadows. They invented, therefore, three ways of expressing their thoughts; the simple, the hieroglyphical, and the symbolical. In the simple they spoke plainly and intelligibly, as in common conversation; in the hieroglyphical they concealed their thoughts under certain images and characters; and in the symbolical they explained them by short expressions, which under a sense plain and simple, included another wholly figurative. Pythagoras principally imitated the symbolical style of the Egyptians, which having neither the obscurity of the hieroglyphics, nor the clearness of ordinary discourse, he thought very proper to inculcate the greatest and most important truths; for a symbol, by its double sense, the proper and the figurative, teaches two things at once. 422 REVIEW.-Oliver's Signs and Symbols. the Abraxas, which Mr. Dodwell supposes were the iɛpa ygaμμata of the Priests. By this word Abraxas, we are to understand certain amulets, marked with sacred characters, borrowed from the Egyptian hieroglyphics. They commenced soon after the birth of Christ, under the reign of Hadrian; and were pagan superstitions adopted by the first Christians, who were natives of Egypt. It is most certain that the triangle interwoven, now the symbol of a royal arch mason, the sun, the moon, the mallet, the square, the compasses, &c. are to be found in the large collections of Abraxas, published by Chifflet and others. Now whether the Society was founded or not by Pythagoras, it is most certain that its leading principles are to be traced to his æra; and have nothing mediæval in their character. As to the modern initiation ceremonies, we certainly do find assimilations to the Mithriaca, as given by Mr. Oliver, pp. 74-82, but we must not mention particulars. It is, however, permitted us to show from Mr. Oliver, the conformities of the masonic symbols to those of Pythagoras (who arranged his assemblies due east and west), although the meanings of the symbols may be now different. "The following are some of the symbols of Pythagoras. The equilateral triangle, a perfect figure, refers to God, the principle and author of all sublunary things; who in his body resembles light, and in his soul truth. The right angle or square comprehends the union of the celestial and terrestrial capacities; and was an emblem of Morality and Justice. The perfect square represents the divine mind. The cube was a symbol of the mind of man after a wellspent life in acts of piety and devotion; which is thus perfectly prepared by virtue for a translation into the society of the celestial gods. A point within a circle, a symbol of the universe, Mesouraneo, because the most excellent body ought to have the most eminent place, viz. the centre. The central fire was esteemed by Pythagoras the mansion of Jove. The Dodecaedron was also a symbol of the universe. The triple triangle, formed of five lines returning into itself, was a symbol of health, and was called Hygeia. The forty-seventh proposition of Euclid was invented by Pythagoras, and is so extensively useful, that it has been adopted in all lodges since his time as a significant symbol of masonry." P. 128. [May, Thus does it appear, that there is analogical evidence in favour (as stated in the old manuscript) of Pythagorean or similar origin. But there are parts which could have no heathen origin, and to these we might possibly find coincidences in the Jewish Targums and Talmuds. Concerning the very ancient incorporation of artificers, it is only necessary to refer to Plutarch in Numa. Mr. Oliver has collected an enormous mass of ancient mysticism, relevant and irrelevant, and is therefore entitled to great praise for his learning and industry. Among these he has included Druidism, and the Helioarkite theory, that mountain of imagination raised out of a mere mole-hill of possibility, which mole-hill has been made to have a power of indefinite expansion, like atmospheric air. As to the Druids, we have seen in the lodge certain Celtic ceremonies similar to theirs; but if it be recollected that till about a century ago, the Society was composed only of operative architects and builders, where are to be found remains which show that the Druids were Freemasons? Do Stonehenge and Abury evince architectural science? And as to the Helio-arkite theory, it is founded upon the presumption that the sons of Noah first invented idolatry, for if they did not, how could it be deduced from the Deluge, which was a subsequent event? Sir William Drummond, a most learned and indubitable authority on such subjects, says, that there are no symbols relating to Diluvian history in the zodiacal signs, and indeed few or no supports of the Helio-arkite theory, except bare possibilities*. The fact is, that Tsabæism, or Helio-latry, is the most ancient of all mythologies, and is very justly presumed to have been antediluvian, and the cause of the destruction of the old world. Such was the opinion of Onkelos, Maimonides, and other celebrated rabbins, who interpret the words relating to the birth of Enos (Gen. vi. 11), “then began men to call on the name of the Lord," by translating them, "In those days men seceded from calling on the name of the Lord," by which they understand that the most glorious name of God was then given unto creatures. In this interpretation they are followed * Origines, B. iv. c. 3, and ii. p. 120. 1829.] REVIEW. Oliver's Signs and Symbols. by the very learned Selden. Lightfoot also translates the passage "then began profaneness in calling on the name of the Lord;" and Heideger, in his eighth dissertation on the theology of the Cainites, and the Antediluvian Idolatry, adduces many arguments to prove that idolatry was the corruption before the flood. This view of the perversion of divine worship by the Antediluvians, has likewise been thought by Burnet, Maurice, &c. to be forcibly corroborated by the degree of perfection attained by the Chaldæans, at so very early a period after the Deluge, and at a time when the Post-diluvians must have been much occupied in choosing their new settlements *. That the phoenomena of Druidism can be solved by Tsabæism most satisfactorily, is shown in Mr. Godfrey Higgins's Celtic Druids; and while stone circles are, in the numbers of the stones, conformable to the ancient astronomical cycles, and Tsabæism is justly presumed to be antediluvian, how absurd is it to suppose, with Mr. Oliver (p. 155), and Mr. Davies (p. 516), that the ark in which the Patriarch and his family were inclosed, was in the first place typified by stone circles, which also, secondly, implied the circle of the Zodiac; thirdly, the sanctuary of the British Ceres, which represented both the Ark and the Zodiac. Setting aside the palpable absurdity of sup posing any assimilation between a ship and a stone circle, and the jumble of such contrarieties, it is easy to see that the first and third items are insititious; are either assumptions absolutely gratuitous, or taken from mere etymology; and how very fallacious that is, may be seen from the manner in which the learned and ingenious Mr. Faber has been proved, by Sir William Drummond, to be sometimes absolutely mistaken, and at other times subject to mistake, through his use of such equivocal testimony. If, however, proofs were wanting of the Druids having been Zabians, we shall only observe, that, as Diogenes Laertius identifies the Druids and Indian Gymnosophists, as Druidesses still exist near the Caucasust, so there are at the present day Druids at Ceylon. Traces of Zabianism (says Young on Idolatrous Cor *Townley's Maimonides, p. 40. + See our Review of Mr. Wolff's Jourual, p. 343. 423 The ruption, i. 35, quoted by Townley, p. If a man offers a counterfeit coin, we cannot be blamed for refusing to take it. Mr. Oliver, by inserting such fallacies, has obliged us to reject them, but we are perfectly willing to allow that, notwithstanding, his work is learned, curious, and ingenious. Townley, 201. 424 REVIEW.-Numismatic Atlas of Ancient History. A Numismatic Atlas of Ancient History, comprised in a series of Twenty-one Plates; containing a Selection of 360 Grecian Coins of Kings, disposed in chronological order, from their earliest period to the beginning of the Fourth Century; from the works of Havercamp, Pellerin, Duane, Visconti, Coombe, Mionnel, &c. Ar ranged and executed on Stone, by Benja min Richard Green. Folio. Plates. A Descriptive Guide to the Numismatic Atlas of Grecian History. By Benjamin Richard Green. Fol. pp. 43. THE impracticability of forming complete collections of coins, on account of the expence and difficulty, renders numismatic compendia of this kind the best mode, if accurately executed, of supplying the desideratum ; because, though no man can possibly be contented with pictures only of modern coins, such representations of those which are not current may sufficiently satisfy him. In these compendia, however, in general we sadly miss the fine and bold relief, which gives even to profiles the effect of the full face, and can be but very imperfectly exhibited upon paper. These substitutes, however, exhibit with great success the spirit, taste, and character, of the execution, often with improvement, of the originals. As guides to History, coins are of eminent utility, and to a greater extent of circumstantial evidence than is commonly supposed. We shall specify an instance or two, taken from the present collection. Every body has read of Milton's barbaric pearls and gold,' of the gorgeousness of eastern taste, and it may be seen here upon the coins of the Asiatic sovereigns. Here may be seen also the hair fastened in a knot behind of the Roman empresses, upon the heads of sovereigns of other countries, extinct before the foundation of the Republic; and the curled wig, common upon the Indian bas reliefs at Elephanta and Salset; in short, whatever may have been the wonderful improvement in taste and execution, effected by the Greeks, he will see, even from the early Syracusean coins and others, that the crowded reverse is of Asiatic original, though subsequently more simplified. Much of this improvement was owing to mythology, and the adoption of symbols, which introduced elegance and simplicity, for the ancient Asiatic coins resemble family pictures. They are only faithful representations of portions of [May, costume, and are, as works of art, ut- It is very true that Pliny (vii. 56) makes Bacchus, i. e. Osiris, the inventor of money; that Herodotus (1.i.) calls it of Lydian introduction, as to gold or silver; and that Strabo (Geogr. I. viii.) says, Phedon or Phidon first coined silver money in Greece. As Homer and Hesiod do not mention money, it is presumed that there was no coinage among the Greeks till long afterwards; and the most common opinion, so far as books inform us, is, that Phidon, King of Argos, contemporary with Lycurgus, first introduced mo ney, on account of the sterility of the isle of Egina, whose inhabitants could *Only two other instances (see pl. xvi. § Parthia) of the full face occur in this collection. All the rest are profiles. |