and her 8 vols. of prose writings secured for her a high reputation.

AVELLINO, a fortified town of S. Italy, capital of the province of Principato Ulteriore, 28 m. E. of Naples; pop. about 15,000. It has a cathedral, several fine public buildings, and a public granary. It is celebrated for its filberts, which are largely produced in the vicinity, and are hence called in Latin nuces Avelianæ, and in French avelines. There is also a large trade in chestnuts and grain, and manufactures of hats and cloth. At the village of Atripalda, 2 m. distant, are the remains of the ancient town of Abellinum, which being destroyed in the wars between the Greeks and Lombards, the inhabitants settled on the present site. The town has suffered much from earthquakes.

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AVE MARIA, a short prayer much used in the Roman and Greek Catholic churches. The first clause is the salutation of St. Elizabeth to the Blessed Virgin, with the names "Maria" and "Jesus" added. The second clause is an acclamation employed by the fathers of the council of Ephesus and the people generally, to express their joy at the decision of the question raised by Nestorius whether Mary is truly the mother of God. It is usually joined with the Pater Noster.

AVENBRUGGER, Leopold. See AUENBRUGGER. AVENTINUS, Mons. See ROME.

AVENTURINE, a variety of quartz, and also one of feldspar. The peculiarity in each, for which the name is given, is the play of reflected or refracted light from numerous points in the mass of the stone-the reflections being bright and sparkling, and of different colors, while the ground may be translucent with little brilliancy, and of a dull color. The effect is probably produced by the crystalline faces in the structure of the stone refracting the light differently. There are, however, some varieties, called also aventurine, in which the play of colors results from the presence of numerous little scales of mica, or other foreign ingredients, each of which reflects the light, and all together produce a similar effect to that of the true varieties of aventurine. An artificial glass of this name is manufactured at Venice, which is well adapted to ornamental purposes, being even more beautiful than the natural minerals. Within the glass are substances apparently vitreous, of great brilliancy, of the color of copper, and in very small crystals of the form of tetrahedrons. It is said to have been discovered by a workman in Murano through accident (aventura) letting fall brass filings into molten glass.

AVENZOAR (properly IBN ZOHR), Abu Merwan, an Arabian physician, born at Peñaflor in Spain about 1072, died in 1162. He began the study of medicine at the age of 10 under the direction of his father, who imposed upon him an oath never to make use of poisons. He was the preceptor of Averroes. Avenzoar tried to bring medicine within the range of experimental science. Several of his works, translated

into Latin, have been published. His Rectificatio Medicationis et Regiminis was published at Venice in 1490 and 1496, with the remarks of Averroes in 1514, and at Lyons in 1851.

AVERAGE. I. General (sometimes called gross or extraordinary), in mercantile law, the contribution made by all the parties concerned in a sea adventure to make good an expense or loss sustained by one or more of them for the benefit of all. The fundamental principle of the law of general average, as expressed in Justinian's Pandects, and adopted by all commercial nations, though with considerable diversity of practice, comes from the Rhodian law, the first known system of marine law, which thus stated the rule: "If goods are thrown overboard in order to lighten a ship, the loss incurred for the sake of all shall be made good by the contribution of all." It would be difficult to set forth the essentials of a case for general average more clearly than they have been stated in the supreme court of the United States (Barnard v. Adams, 10 How. 270), Mr. Justice Grier delivering the opinion: "In order to constitute a case for general average, three things must concur: 1. A common danger, or a danger in which ship, cargo, and crew all participate-a danger imminent and apparently inevitable, except by voluntarily incurring the loss of a portion of the whole to save the remainder. 2. There must be a voluntary jettison, jactus, or casting away of some portion of the joint concern for the purpose of avoiding this imminent peril; or, in other words, a transfer of the peril from the whole to a particular portion of the whole. 3. This attempt to avoid a common peril must be successful. The right to contribution is not made to depend on any real or presumed intention to destroy the thing cast away, but on the fact that it has been selected to suffer the peril in place of the whole that the remainder may be saved." Not only the value of the property destroyed, but what follows as a necessary consequence of its destruction, as injuries to other goods, expenses of refitting, and the wages and provisions of the crew in the port of relief, are subjects of contribution. So is also ransom paid to a pirate, by both the common and civil law (the rule of which on this point has been repealed in England), and in general whatever necessary and voluntary loss or expense is incurred by a part for the good of all. Goods finally saved must contribute for loss sustained in procuring temporary safety. By the French ordinance, goods stowed upon deck are expressly excluded from the benefit but not from the burden of general average, since they are supposed to hamper the vessel and increase the danger; and such is the general tenor of both the English and American law. In the courts of all three countries, however, an established usage to carry upon deck, as with small coasting vessels, is allowed to take a case out of the operation of the rule. Both the continental and the American law is somewhat

more liberal than the English as regards the subjects of general average, but the difference consists not in the nature but in the application of principles. The victuals and ammunition of a ship do not contribute in a case of general average, nor whatever is necessary to the persons of those on board, as wearing apparel, &c., nor the passengers for their own safety, nor the crew for their wages, lest apprehension of personal loss should deter them from personal sacrifice. The rule of the civil law that "those things alone which pay freight contribute" is, with slight limitations, the general law on this point. The rate of contribution is in proportion to the safety obtained, according to value, not weight. The rules upon which this adjustment is made differ in different countries, and are not well settled anywhere. It is a matter of such nice calculation, that in most commercial ports the computation and adjustment of general average constitute a special branch of business, attended to by a special class of men. By the civil law, the master of the vessel was required to see to this; and the provisions of the French ordinance are somewhat similar, but are practically disused, the work being performed by dépêcheurs, as they are called. II. Particular, an almost obsolete barbarous expression, used to signify a partial loss, which must be borne by the immediate loser alone. III. Petty Averages are sundry small charges borne in common by the owners of a ship and cargo, like pilotage, towage, anchorage, light money, quarantine, &c.

AVERNO (anc. Avernus), a lake in Italy, about 8 m. W. of Naples, and near the ruins of ancient Cumæ. It lies in the crater of an extinct volcano, and, though less than 2 m. in circumference, is of great depth. It has no natural outlet, but an artificial passage for its waters into the gulf of Baie was made by Agrippa, who also connected it with the Luerine lake. This latter passage was closed by a volcanic convulsion which in 1538 cast up a hill of considerable height in the place of the latter lake. No attempt has been made to reopen the communication thus obstructed; and as the subterranean tunnel which connected Averno directly with the sea has also been blocked up, the lake is again without an outlet. In ancient times, Avernus, with the wild and gloomy scenery about it, the pestilent vapors rising from its volcanic shores, and the prevailing belief in its unfathomable depth, was reputed the entrance to Hades, and was made sacred to Proserpine. By this path Ulysses, according to the legend, visited the ghosts of the dead, and here was also a famous oracle. The lake retains few of its ancient characteristics; the dense woods which anciently covered its banks were cut down before the time of Strabo, and the volcanic phenomena appear to have entirely ceased. The ruins of a Roman edifice, probably a bath, are on the S. E. border of the lake.

AVERROES, or Averrhoës (a corruption of IBN ROSHD), an Arabian philosopher, born in Cor

dova about 1120, died in Morocco, Dec. 12, 1198. Educated by eminent masters, he became, like his father, distinguished for his varied knowledge, and succeeded him in the office of mufti or chief judge in Andalusia, and subsequently held the same position in Morocco. He stood high in the esteem of successive rulers, especially of Al-Mansour; but the latter, yielding to those who could not reconcile the philosophy of Averroes with his professed devotion to the Koran, and perhaps also impelled by personal animosity, banished him for several years, but finally restored him to his office. He wrote on astronomy, particularly on the spots of the sun, and on many other scientific subjects; but he is chiefly celebrated as a commentator upon Aristotle and Plato. He grasped the ideas of the Greek philosophers, though he had no knowledge of the Greek language. The first complete edition of his works was published in Latin at Venice in 11 vols. (1552-'60), the commentaries filling 8 volumes, and 3 volumes containing his refutation of Algazzali's work against Greek philosophy, his great medical work, Kulliyat or improperly Colliget (of which several editions have been published), and miscellaneous treatises. As a philosopher he tended toward pantheism and materialism. His professed disciples were called Averroists. Leo X. issued a bull against his doctrines after they had been denounced by the university of Paris. Renan, in his Averrhoès et l'Averrhoisme (Paris, 1852), gives a full notice of his life and works, and characterizes him as the chief representative in the middle ages of the Peripatetic philosophy and of freedom of thought, and as exempt from all purely dogmatic and religious bias. Among other recent works relating to his doctrines is Müller's Philosophie und Theologie von Averrhoës (Munich, 1859).

AVERSA, a town of Italy, in the province of Terra di Lavoro, situated in a remarkably fertile region, 8 m. N. of Naples; pop. in 1872, 21,176. It contains a cathedral and many churches and convents, a foundling hospital, and a lunatic asylum founded by Murat, which was among the first to attempt curing the insane by occupation and recreation. The sparkling white Asprino wine of Aversa is often sold as champagne, and its sweetmeats, especially almond cakes, are great delicacies. Aversa was settled by the Normans, and granted in 1029 to Rainulf, one of their leaders, who received from the emperor Conrad II. the title of count of Aversa. In 1030 the inhabitants of the ancient city of Atella, the site of which is still visible in the vicinity, were removed hither. In 1061 the county was annexed to the principality of Capua, then a papal fief.

AVESNES, a town of France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Le Nord, on the Helpe, 50 m. S. E. of Lille; pop. in 1866, 3,737. It is one of the fortresses which protect France on the east, built under the reign of Louis XIV. according to the system of Vauban. It was bombarded immedi

ately after the battle of Waterloo, almost destroyed by the explosion of a magazine, and for some time occupied by the allies.

AVEYRON, a S. department of France, forming a part of the old province of Guienne, bounded by Cantal, Lozère, Gard, Hérault, Tarn, Tarn-et-Garonne, and Lot; area, 3,375 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 402,474. It is named from an affluent of the Tarn, which rises in the department near its E. border, flows W. as far as Villefranche, and then S. to the confines of the department of Tarn. The Lot flows on the N. W. border. Aveyron is one of the most mountainous districts of France. It has mines of copper, lead, silver, zinc, iron, and coal; those of coal are among the most valuable in the country. Cattle are raised in great numbers. The famous Roquefort cheese is largely exported. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Rodez, Villefranche, Espalion, Millaud, and Saint-Affrique. Capital, Rodez.

AVEZAC. See D'AVEZAO.

AVICEBRON, or Avencebrol. See SOLOMON BEN GABIROL.

AVICENNA (a corruption of IBN SINA), an Arabian physician and philosopher, born in a village of Bokhara in 980, died in 1036 or 1037. He was educated at Bokhara, where he devoted himself to study with such extraordinary zeal that before he reached manhood he was already famous as a physician, and at 21 he had written an encyclopædia of science to which he gave the name of "Book of the Sum Total." He afterward wrote a series of commentaries on this work. He delivered public lectures on logic and astronomy in the house of a rich patron of learning at Jorjan in

Khorasan, and afterward became vizier to the emir of Hamadan, at whose court he taught philosophy and medicine, closing his lectures every evening with feasting and dancing. Involved after the death of this prince in a secret correspondence with the ruler of Ispahan, he was thrown into prison, but made his escape to that city, and there spent the latter part of his life in prosperity. Before his death he reformed the excesses of his conduct, freed his slaves, and gave his fortune to the poor. His medical writings, which number over 60 distinct works, were long held in the highest esteem, and the most important of them, the Kanun (Canon "), was for many centuries the standard authority even in Europe. It gave

an excellent synopsis of the views of the ancient Greek physicians. It was published in Latin as early as 1473 (Padua), in Hebrew in 1492 (fol., Naples), and in the original Arabic in 1593 (fol., Rome). There were about 30 Latin editions of the "Canon" during the 15th and 16th centuries. Avicenna's principal philosophical work, the Ash-Shefa, or "Remedy," has never been printed.

AVIGLIANO, a town of S. Italy, in the province of Basilicata, 11 m. N. W. of Potenza; pop. about 10,000. It has a handsome collegiate church, a royal college, and several convents. A portion of the town was destroyed by a land slide in 1824.

AVIGNON (anc. Avenio), a town of S. E. France, in Provence, department of Vaucluse, 365 m..S. S. E. of Paris, situated on the Rhône, which is here crossed by an elegant suspension bridge built in 1844; pop. in 1866, 36,407. It is an archiepiscopal see, and has a lyceum, a seminary, a public library, museums of antiquities, paintings, and natural history, a botanical garden, an agricultural society, and an association called the academy of Vaucluse. Its industry is active, especially in the cultivation of madder, in the manufacture of silks,

Avignon, France.

colored cloths, and taffetas, and in copper, lead, and iron works. It carries on an extensive trade in the various productions of Provence, particularly in grains and highly esteemed red wines. The town is generally well built, in the form of an almost regular oval, and its walls, rather beautiful than strong, are flanked with towers, adorned with battlements, and surrounded by handsome boulevards. The streets are narrow, but there are magnificent wharfs along the Rhône and numerous ancient and remarkable edifices. Among the latter is the palace of the popes, a sombre Gothic structure of the 12th century, now transformed into a prison and barracks. This city was the capital of the Gallic tribe of the Cavares prior to

the conquest of Gaul by Julius Cæsar. It remained under Roman domination till the 5th century, when the Burgundians took possession of it. From the Burgundians it was taken by the Goths, who in turn yielded it to the Franks. The Saracens captured it twice, shortly before and after the battle of Poitiers (732), and both times were forced to abandon it by Charles Martel. It was a Carlovingian city for about a century and a half; then several times exchanged its masters, became a republic under the protection of the German empire, adhered to the Albigensian heresy, and was captured by Louis VIII. in 1226, who made it the common inheritance of two sons, through one of whom, Charles of Anjou, it became attached to the crown of Naples. In 1309 Pope Clement V., at the request of Philip the Fair, established himself at Avignon. The city and its dependencies were purchased by the supreme pontiff from Joanna of Naples, and all the popes from Clement V. to Gregory XI. (1309-'77) made their residence here. The last-named pope restored the papal see to Rome, but during the great schism, from 1378 to 1418, several of the rival popes resided in Avignon. The 14th century was thus the period of the town's greatest splendor. It then numbered about 100,000 inhabitants. Petrarch was among its many distinguished residents. After the close of the schism Avignon, which with its environs then formed the comtat de Venaissin, was governed by the legates of the pope, till in 1791 France succeeded, after various attempts, in reclaiming it. Twenty-one councils of the church were held in Avignon, from 1050 to 1725.

ÁVILA. I. A province of Spain, forming the S. W. part of Old Castile, and bordering on New Castile and Estremadura; area, 2,981 sq. m.; pop. in 1867, 176,769. The northern portion of the province is generally level, of moderate fertility, and the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture. The southern part is intersected by numerous rocky mountain ranges, with verdant valleys between. Here the raising of cattle is the most important branch of industry. The Alberche and the Adaja, respectively affluents of the Tagus and the Douro, are the principal rivers. Two centuries ago the province was wealthy and populous, but it has gradually decayed, in consequence of the burdensome manorial and feudal privileges, and the laws of entail and mortmain. Merino wool is the chief article of production. Besides the capital, it contains no town of importance. II. The capital of the preceding province, an episcopal city, situated on the Adaja, 53 m. W. N. W. of Madrid; pop. about 7,000. It had formerly a flourishing university and extensive woollen manufactures, but its ancient prosperity has departed. The city is encompassed by a wall, still in good repair, with towers of great strength. It has a fine old cathedral and a Dominican convent, both of which contain some beautiful monuments. The church of San Vicente, without

the walls, said to have been erected in 313, is an interesting object.

AVLONA (anc. Aulon), a fortified town of Turkey, the best seaport of Albania, in the pashalic of Janina, on the gulf of Avlona; pop. about 8,000. The Christian part of its inhabitants are chiefly employed in commerce. The Turks manufacture woollen fabrics and arms.

AVOCET, or Avoset (recurvirostra), a bird of the order of the grallatores. There is but one European and one American species, which are very closely connected, and would at first sight, by an unpractised eye, be pronounced identical. The bill is long, slender, and reflected upward at the extremity. The bird is webfooted, but does not swim easily or willingly, though it wades quite up to the breast, for which it is admirably qualified by its long legs, which are naked up to the head of the thigh. The palmated webs of its feet enable it to stand and run, without sinking, over the soft mud of the seashore. It feeds on aquatic animals, such as the smaller conchifers and mollusks, and on the spawn of fishes. The American avocet, recurvirostra Americana, is thus described by Giraud in his "Birds of Long Island": Loral

space white; neck and fore part of the breast reddish buff; lower parts, back and tail white; wings black, with a broad band of white. formed by the tips of the secondary coverts. Lower portion of the tibia naked. Legs blue. Length 18 inches; wing, 9. A few breed at Egg Harbor, where they are known as the "blue-stocking." It builds its nest of seawrack and dried sedge among tufts of long grass by the edge of some salt pool. It is common in all parts of the United States, especially in the fur countries.

AVOIRDUPOIS (Fr. avoir du poids, to have weight; or, possibly, as it was formerly spelled averdupois, from the old Fr. verb averer, to verify), a standard of weight, to which articles of merchandise sold by weight are referred, except the precious metals, gems, and medicines. The pound avoirdupois contains 7,000 grains; the pound troy contains 5,760. The ounces do not retain the same proportions, there being 16 to the pound avoirdupois, and 12 to the pound troy. The ounce avoirdupois is supposed to be the same as the Roman uncia, which, according to Dr. Arbuthnot, contained the same number of grains, viz., 4373; but it

is very unlikely that these small weights have been preserved uniformly the same for so long a period. The old term avoirdupois is first met with in 1532, in some orders of Henry VIII.; and in 1588 a pound of this weight was deposited, by order of Queen Elizabeth, in the exchequer, as a standard. This, when examined in 1758 by the committee appointed by the government, was found to be 14 grain deficient in weight; and the troy weight was thereafter made the standard. The standard grain, prescribed by act of parliament in the reign of George IV., is such that "a cubic inch of distilled water weighed in air by brass weights, at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit's thermometer, the barometer being at 30 inches, is equal to 252-458 grains."

AVOLA (anc. Abolla), a town of Sicily, on the E. coast, 13 m. S. W. of Syracuse; pop. about 8,000. It was rebuilt after its destruction by the earthquake of 1693. The exquisite honey, so renowned in antiquity as honey of Hybla, is still produced in its vicinity. Avola has a tunny fishery and a refinery for homegrown sugar.

AVON, the name of several English rivers, the most important of which, the Upper Avon, rises near Naseby, in Northamptonshire, flows through the counties of Leicester, Warwick, and Worcester, and entering Gloucestershire, empties into the Severn near Tewkesbury, after a course of about 100 m. Stratford, the birthplace of Shakespeare, is situated on the bank of this stream.

AVON SPRINGS, a village of Avon township, Livingston co., N. Y., 19 m. S. S. W. of Rochester; pop. about 900. It is situated on a terrace 100 feet above the Genesee river, commanding beautiful views in all directions, and is reached by the Erie and New York Central railroads. The place is visited by large numbers in summer for its mineral waters, which are deemed beneficial in rheumatism, dyspepsia, and cutaneous diseases.

AVOYELLES, a parish of Louisiana, intersected by Red river, which joins the Mississippi near its S. E. angle; area, 800 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 12,926, of whom 6,175 were colored. The surface is nearly level and is subject to inundation. The western portion is fertile. In 1870 the parish produced 175,330 bushels of Indian corn, 24,985 of sweet potatoes, 78,385 lbs. of rice, 10,139 bales of cotton, 325 hhds. of sugar, and 25,600 gallons of molasses. Capital, Marksville. AVRANCHES, a town of France, in Normandy, capital of an arrondissement in the department of La Manche, situated on the Sée, within 3 m. of the sea and 66 m. S. of Cherbourg; pop. in 1866, 8,642. It stands upon a hill looking toward the Channel islands, and contains the remains of a fine cathedral, consecrated in 1121, and possessing the stone on which Henry II. of England knelt to do penance for the murder of Becket. The cheapness of living and attractive scenery of the town have made it a resort for English families. In the 14th

century it came into the possession of the English, who retained it till 1450. Avranches has several public institutions, including a library, and some manufactures of lace and blonde. AWE, Loch, a lake in Argyleshire, Scotland, 8 m. N. W. of Inverary. It is 24 m. long, and in few places more than 1 m. wide, encircled by rugged and precipitous mountains, the loftiest, Ben Cruachan, 3,670 feet in height. Its surface is dotted with small islands. On Innishail are the remains of a small Cistercian nunnery, and a churchyard containing many curious old tombstones. On Innis Fraoch are some traces of an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the chief of the M'Naughtons. Innish Chounel was for several centuries the residence of the Argyll family. The castle of Kilchurn, whose square tower was built in 1440 by one of the Campbells, the founder of the Breadalbane family, stands on a rocky point of land, near the head of the lake. It was garrisoned as late as 1745 by the king's troops, but is now deserted. Several small streams flow into Loch Awe, one of which connects it with Loch Avich, and another with Loch Etive, an arm of the sea. The lake is celebrated for its trout and salmon.

AX, a town of S. France, in the department of Ariége, 21 m. S. E. of Foix; pop. 1,679. It is situated at the foot of the Pyrenees, over 2,000 feet above the level of the sea, in the midst of granitic mountains and at the junction of three valleys out of which flow the sources of the Ariége. It is celebrated for picturesque scenery, and especially for containing the greatest number and the hottest sulphurous springs in the Pyrenees. Near the hospital is a bath established in 1200 for the cure of leprosy, and still called leper's basin. Ax has been widely known as a watering place nearly 100 years, and contains now a number of bathing establishments, the so-called gun spring being the hottest. Over 50 springs issue from the junction of the slate and limestone with the granite, varying in temperature from a little over 100° to nearly 200° F.; and they burst forth so abundantly on all sides that the place has been figuratively described as being built over a subterranean reservoir of boiling water.

AXAYACATL, a Mexican emperor, died about 1477. He was the father of Montezuma II., and reigned 14 years. He was already famous as a warrior when he became emperor of the Aztecs, and inaugurated his reign by a successful expedition against Tehuantepec, and in 1467 conquered anew the cities of Cotasta and Tochtepec. A little later he repelled the tribes who strove to get possession of the Mexican capital, and maintained a vigorous warfare against his neighbors. He was defeated by the natives of Michoacan, whom he attacked with inferior forces, and on his return to Mexico celebrated funeral solemnities. He was preparing another expedition when he died suddenly and prematurely. The palace of Axayacatl, a gigantic pile of stone buildings, became