CHAPTER V.

Parallelism one of the great distinguishing characteristics of Hebrew poetry. Examples of this artifice. The epanode. Bishop Jebb's rationale of it. The characteristics of Hebrew poetry manifest in the Pentateuch. Reasons for the difficulty of understanding certain parts of the Bible. How to be obviated. Prophecies of Isaac, Jacob, Balaam, and Moses.

ONE of the great distinguishing characteristics of Hebrew poetry is that peculiar conformation of the sentences, called by Bishop Lowth, parallelism, and divided by him into three kinds: synonymous parallelism, "when the same sentiment is repeated in different but almost equivalent terms;"* the antithetic parallelism, "when a thing is illustrated, by its contrary being opposed to it;" and the synthetic, or constructive parallelism," in which the sentences answer to each other, not by the iteration of the same image, or sentiment, or the opposition of their contraries, but merely by the form of construction." I shall give one example of each kind from Bishop Lowth's Prælections, translated by Dr. Gregory. The first example is from Isaiah, being the first, second, and third verses of the sixtieth chapter.

Arise, be thou enlightened; for thy light is come,
And the glory of Jehovah is risen upon thee.
For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth,
And a thick vapour the nations:

But upon thee shall Jehovah arise,

And his glory upon thee shall be conspicuous.
And the nations shall walk in thy light,
And kings in the brightness of thy rising.

Here it will be observed, that every alternate line corresponds with the preceding; the same sentiment being repeated in different but nearly equivalent terms. In fact, the second line of each couplet is a sort of echo to the first, the latter being exegetical of the former. This form of parallelism has been termed, by Bishop Jebb, " cognate," because the parallel terms are rather kindred than equivalent, and by a later writer, with juster discrimination, "gradational," because the sense shows an obvious gradation of force in the second line, where it advances towards a climax. Now, though in Lowth's version the parallel terms are more strongly discriminated than in our authorized translation, still, those terms will be equally conspicuous there, as will be better seen by breaking the passage into hemistichs, as Bishop Lowth has done. Our Bible translation is word for word, as follows:

Arise, shine, for thy light is come,

And the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee.
For, behold, the darkness shall cover the earth,

And gross darkness the people:

But the Lord shall arise upon thee,

And his glory shall be seen upon thee.

And the Gentiles shall come to thy light,

And kings to the brightness of thy rising.

The following is a specimen of antithetic parallelism from the Proverbs, chap. xxvii. 6,7; xiii. 7; xxviii. 11.

The blows of a friend are faithful,

But the kisses of an enemy are treacherous.
The cloyed will trample upon an honey-comb,
But to the hungry every bitter thing is sweet.

There is who maketh himself rich and wanteth all things,
Who maketh himself poor, yet hath much wealth.

The rich man is wise in his own eyes,

But the poor man that hath discernment to trace him out,
will despise him.

In the four pair of lines now quoted, it will be at once perceived that every alternate line is an antithesis to the one preceding; or in other words, it presents a complete opposition of words and thoughts. This form of opposing sentiments and expressions in direct contrast imparts great force and distinctness to both; every proposition, sentiment or expression so contrasted giving an emphasis to its opposite and fixing it with greater vividness upon the mind, because there is a reflex impression, as it were, conveyed; the one image, so to speak, reflecting the other, while each is heightened and rendered more lively by the opposition of its contrary; they are mutually enhanced by this process. -Our common Bible version gives the passages thus:

Faithful are the wounds of a friend;

But the kisses of an enemy are deceitful.
The full soul loatheth an honey-comb :

But to the hungry soul every bitter thing is sweet.
There is that maketh himself rich, yet hath nothing:
There is that maketh himself poor, yet hath great riches.
The rich man is wise in his own conceit :

But the poor that hath understanding searcheth him out.

It will be observed that, except in the first pair of lines, the parallels are as distinctly marked in this as in Lowth's translation, which was especially made to exhibit the parallelisms; and though the former is somewhat less graceful than the latter, it is superior in terse simplicity, and certainly does not fall below it in energy. In the first couplet there is an inversion of the phrase, which destroys its symmetry by disturbing the natural position of the antithetical terms, which Lowth has restored to their proper situation.

The synthetic, or constructive parallelism, is not so obvious as the other two, and is frequently not to be detected by a superficial examination. In the following specimen, however, from the Psalms, it cannot escape observation. (Psalm xix. 7—11.)

The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul;

The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making wise the simple.
The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart;
The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes.
The fear of Jehovah is pure, enduring for ever;

The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they are just altogether.
More desirable than gold, or than much fine gold;

And sweeter than honey or the dropping of honey-combs.

"Constructive parallels," says Bishop Jebb,* "are when the parallelism consists only in the similar form of construction; in which word does not answer to word, and sentence to sentence, as equivalent or opposite; but there is a correspondence and equality between different propositions with respect to the shape and turn

Sacred Literature, p. 25.

of the whole sentence, and of the constituent parts; such as noun answering to noun, verb to verb, interrogative to interrogative. To this description of parallelism may be referred all such as do not come within the two former classes. The variety of this form is accordingly very great. Sometimes the parallelism is more, sometimes less exact; sometimes hardly at all apparent."

It will be seen in the last quotation, that the parallelism consists in the relative conformation of the lines in each couplet. There is no reduplication of the terms, or gradational advance of meaning, as in the first form. Though embracing different propositions, and having no necessary connection in the sense, the parallel lines maintain the closest similarity of construction. Each couplet, by way of more intelligible illustration, may be compared to a pair of rods, the one brass, the other iron; both being precisely of the same shape, but differing entirely in colour. In the extract last given, there will be observed the same conformity of structure in each pair of lines, the parallels exhibiting the closest exactitude in the form, though not in the sense, as will perhaps be more distinctly perceived by repeating part of the quotation:

The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul;

The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making wise the simple.

The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart;
The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes.

In our authorized version of the Scriptures