They all aver or declare something. This they do by means of their verbs. Accordingly, averment is the essential quality of the verb. Every verb is a word which makes an averment. Here, then, we learn that the noun names, and the verb avers. By these tokens may all nouns and all verbs be known. Whatever names is a noun; whatever avers is a verb. Chair is a noun, because it is the name of an object; stands is a verb, because it avers or declares something of chair; and the union of the two, as chair stands, forms a proposition.

Sentences, then, in their simplest form, consist of a noun and a verb. A noun and a verb are indispensable. Whatever more you may have, you cannot have anything less than a noun and a verb in a sentence or proposition. As a substitute for the noun, you may have a pronoun. Pronoun, again, is a word of Latin origin, signifying a word which stands instead of a noun. Thus we may put the pronoun he instead of Alfred; e. g. (Latin, exempli gratiâ: that is, for example):

Alfred reads

He reads

where he holds the place of Alfred. We must accordingly qualify our statement, and say that sentences, in their simplest form, consist of a verb and a noun or pronoun. One or two other qualifications might be stated; but here, at least, instead of entering into them, it will be better to put the statement in its most general form, a form in which it will embrace all particular cases, and render qualifi. cation unnecessary. I say, then, that in every sentence there must be a subject and a verb. I have thus set before you a new term. That term I must explain. Subject is a Latin word, and denotes that which receives, that which lies under, is liable or exposed to; from sub, under, and jacio, I throw, I place; in the passive, I lie. Accordingly, the subject of a proposition is that to which the action declared in the verb is ascribed. Hence, the subject of a proposition is the agent, the actor, the doer. The subject of a proposition answers to the question who? or what? as, who reads? Answer; Alfred reads. The term subject is used with special reference to the corresponding, term predicate. The predicate of a proposition is that which is attributed to the subject. What is attributed in our model sentence? This, namely, that Alfred reads. "Reads," then, is here the predicate, or that which is ascribed to, or asserted of Alfred. Hence you see the propriety of the term subject, since Alfred is subject to the averment that he reads. Now, in the grammatical construction of the sentence, it matters not whether you say, Alfred reads, or he reads. In both cases you have a subject and verb, or predicate; and consequently you have a complete enunciation of thought, or a perfect sentence. The sentence thus analysed and explained may be set forth in this form:

As the subject undergoes a change by passing, when necessary, into he, so may the predicate be modified. Instead of a predicate in one word, you may have a predicate in two words, by substituting a verb and an adjective; as,

Alfred is good.

Another new term demands another explanation. What is the meaning of adjective? Adjective in Latin signifies that which is added to, or thrown to (ad, to; and jacio, I throw). To what are adjectives thrown or added? To nouns, as in this instance. Adjectives, therefore, in their very nature, cannot stand alone. They perform their office in being added to or connected with nouns. They are connected with nouns in order to qualify the meaning of those nouns, and to answer to the question of what kind? What kind of a boy is Alfred? Answer, "he is a good boy." An adjective, then, is an epithet (a Greek word, which denotes that which is attributed to a noun or a person); e. g., green fields, tall men, hard rocks, where green, tall, and hard are epithets, or adjectives, inasmuch as they assign the quality of their several subjects. Now, what we call qualities, we call also attributes. The attributes of a body are its qualities. Attribute is a word from the Latin, denoting that which is attributed or ascribed to an object. Adjectives, therefore, describe the qualities or attributes of the persons or things they are connected with. In the instance given above good is the attribute of the proposition; thus,

But this explanation leaves is unexplained. The word is on reflection you will recognise as a verb, seeing that it avers; for it avers or declares that Alfred is good. By comparing together the two forms

You observe that reads and is good hold the same place and perform the same function in the two propositions. They in each case form the predicate of the sentence.. The predicate is that which is predicated, declared, or averred of the subject of a proposition. In the former instance, reads is that which is averred; in the latter, is good is that which is averred. Mark, that neither is nor good alone forms the predicate, for what is asserted is not that Alfred is, that is, exists, but that he is good. Accordingly, the predicate here consists of two words,-namely, is good; but in the former example, it consists of merely one word,-that is reads. Of these two words, good we have seen is the attribute. It remains to state that the word is forms what is called the copula, a Latin term which may here be rendered link. The term describes its office. The word is in the sentence links the subject with the predicate. The whole may be exhibited thus:

By ordinary grammarians what we have termed the subject, is called the nominative case. The employment of such a term is objectionable, for it is incorrect by not being sufficiently comprehensive. Take, for instance, the proposition, to ride is healthful. To ride is the subject of the proposition, and the subject, therefore, to the verb is. But is to ride a nominative case? Ask the grammarians, and they will tell you that it is the infinitive mood of the verb ride. If an infinitive mood, it is not a nominative case. Cases pertain to nouns, moods to verbs.

But here we meet with an instance of the complexity and obscurity that have been brought into English grammar by attachment to Latin forms. Our nouns in their actual condition have but one case, the genitive; or if the nominative be allowed to be a case, then two cases are the utmost that our nouns can be said to have. Why should more be assigned to them? It may be doubted, indeed, whether what is called the nominative can be properly termed a case, for it differs from the Latin nominative, which is formed from a stem common to all the cases through which the noun passes, whereas in English the nominative is the stem itself. However this may be, in English, nouns now possess no more than two cases. This fact is in no way affected by the allegation that the Anglo-Saxon, the mother of the English, has several cases. It is with the daughter, not with the mother, that we are here concerned.

As in English nouns, there are at the most only two cases, so are we without an objective or accusative case. Yet sentences in English, as in Latin, have their object. That object must be recognised. Let it be called the object of the proposition, for so it is; in any given instance let it be termed the object of the verb, for it is the object of the verb.

Here you must carefully distinguish between a case and a relation. A case denotes a change in a noun corresponding to the change in its relation. This you will see in these two propositions:

Now without knowing Latin_you may clearly understand what case means, and learn that in English we have no objective case. The Deus of number 1, becomes Deo in number 2; but in both the English word God remains the same, though in the former, it is in what is commonly called the nominative, and in the latter in what is commonly called the ablative case. Look also at mundus and mundum; you see that the nominative mundus is, in the objective or accusitive case, changed into mundum.

Here you clearly have two cases, but the English word world represents both. Consequently if world is in the nominative it is not also in the objective case, for there is no alteration of form whatever. Yet in the latter case there is a change of relation; for while in number 1, world is the object; in number 2, it is the subject of the proposition. The English then does not conform to the Latin custom of expressing diversity of relations in nouns by diversity of form, or does so only in a limited degree. In fact the tendency of the English language has long been to drop the terminations and inflexions which it borrowed from its Anglo-Saxon parent. The tendency has for ages continued to become more and more strong. It is a tendency which deserves encouragement, for in proportion as it is effectual, it gives freedom and power to the language, and makes the acquisition of it easy, and the diffusion of it rapid.

I have intimated that propositions have each an object as well as a subject. Such is generally the case, and such is the case more widely than may at first appear. In our standard phrase, Alfred reads, no object is expressed. And the statement may be made without any clear reference to an object. Verbs in which there no reference, or no clear and obvious reference to an object, are called intransitive verbs,—that is, verbs the action of which does not (instransitive-in, not; trans, across; eo, I go) pass over to an object. Alfred sleeps, Alfred runs, Alfred rides, supply other instances of intransitive verbs; because in each case the action remains with the subject. But these and most other intransitive verbs may become transitive by having an object placed after them; e. g.

Alfred runs.
Alfred runs a long way
Alfred sings.

Alfred sings a fine song.
object, then we must

If, however, propositions in general have an
add an object to our grammatical formula; thus :-

SUBJECT.

Alfred

Verb. reads

PREDICATE.

Object. writing.

The grammatical formula is thus made complete. The verb reads is, as we have seen, equivalent in grammar (or logic) to the form is good; where the former is the copula, and the latter the attribute; so that an attribute with its copula is equivalent to the verb and its object, in forming the predicate of a proposition.

The proposition which, as it stands, has all the essential parts of a proposition, may receive additions in order to express modifications of the meaning. Introduce and, then it runs,

Alfred reads writing and manuscript.

This particle and is termed a conjunction. Conjunctions (Latin, cum, with, and jungo, I join) join together words and sentences,

And, in this case, unites manuscript with writing. Before writing, insert a; then the proposition stands thus :

Alfred reads a writing..

A is called an article (properly in Latin a little joint). A is called the indefinite article, inasmuch as it leaves it indefinite what object is meant, merely intimating that it is not many objects but only one object that is intended. A, indeed, is only a variety of our word one, ane. Being so, its original form was an. The n is now dropt before a consonant for the sake of euphony (Greek eu, well, and phoné, a sound;—meaning agreeable sound).

Contrasted with the indefinite article a, is another form which bears the name of the definite article; that is, the. The is a reduced form of these. Consequently the refers to an object previously mentioned or known; as,

Alfred reads THE writing.

he reads, that is, some writing known to the speaker.

We have already found a form of speech which qualifies nouns,— namely, the adjective. We may therefore insert a suitable adjective in this lengthening form; thus:—

SUBJECT.

Alfred

PREDICATE.

reads the obscure writing and manuscript.'

We have hitherto modified the predicate. Still more may it be modified. The verb reads may undergo a modification of import. Introduce the word soon:

Alfred SOON reads the obscure writing and manuscript. Two other parts of speech may be introduced by inserting the words to me; as,

SUBJECT.

PREDICATE.

Alfred soon reads TO ME the obscure writing and manuscript. Me is a pronoun, as we found he to be. Me, you see, holds the place of a noun. Me is the objective case corresponding to the nominative case I. Our pronouns, as you here see, have some diversities of case, for in them you find varying forms corresponding to varieties of meaning. The other word just added,-namely, to, is called a preposition. The word preposition signifies, according to its Latin element, that which is put before; a preposition, then, is a word put before a noun; and it is put before a noun, in order to modify its signification, or mark the relation in which the noun stands to another word, or to other words; e. g.he gave the book to

where to, from, with, and of are prepositions.