PART II-INFLEXION. NOUNS, THEIR ORIGIN AND CLASSES. I HAVE given my scholars such instruction on the component elements of the English language as the occasion permits. You now see of what materials your mother tongue consists. In their origin, those materials are very diverse :-the Celtic, the Teutonic, the Norman-French, the Latin, the Greek, the Romance tongues -such as the French, the Italian, the Spanish-besides others, have all contributed a portion. Did I possess an unlimited command of space, I would here have entered into historical details, showing at what precise point of time the several elements entered our language. Some general idea on this head you will already have obtained; and for the present, at least, this must suffice. Our labours, then, have put us into possession of the constituent parts of the English tongue. These constituent parts we now possess in their simple and in their compound form, that is, we know whence our words come, and of what verbal combinations they are capable. But we do not yet know what changes these simple words, and these compound words undergo in themselves. Equally are we uninformed of the laws under which they combine together so as to form sentences and become the vehicle of thought. In other words, we have dealt with the Etymology of our tongue, and have now to treat of its inflexions and its Syntax. All the words of the English language have been brought into nine or ten classes. Arranging these classes according to their importance, I find them to be: 1, the noun; 2, the verb; 3, the adjective; 4, the pronoun; 5, the adverb; 6, the preposition; 7, the conjunction; 8, the article; 9, the participle; 10, the interjection. If, however, I follow a more natural order, it may be better to treat of these classes in the following succession:-1, the noun; 2, the article; 3, the adjective; 4, the pronoun; 5, the preposition; 6, the verb; 7, the participle; 8, the adverb; 9, the conjunction; 10, the interjection. By this means we get together under one head the noun, and what chiefly pertains to the noun; and under another head the verb, and what chiefly pertains to the verb, as is seen in this arrangement : Nominal Division. 1. NOUN, article, adjective, pronoun, preposition. 2. VERB, participle, adverb, conjunction, interjection. The reasons of this division are obvious; for, 1st, the article limits the noun; the adjective qualifies the noun; the pronoun takes the place of the noun; the preposition governs the noun; and, 2nd, the participle belongs to the verb; the adverb qualifies used as a noun, by its being constructed as a noun; that is, by its having connected with it such particles as nouns commonly take. Now, nouns take before them the articles, the and a; and they have after them the preposition of. Consequently those words are nouns which have the or a before them, and of after them. Attend to these instances of WORDS USED AS NOUNS. 1. Adjectives used as nouns: "The blacks of Africa are bought and sold."—"The Ancient of Days did sit" (Dan. vii. 9).—“ Of the ancients." (Swift). 2. Pronouns used as nouns: "The nameless He whose nod is nature's birth." (Young).—“I was wont to load my she with knacks." (Shakespeare).- -"When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer." (Cobbett).-"Let those two try to do this with their whos and their whiches." (Spectator). 3. Verbs used as nouns. "The officer erred in granting a permit.""A may be of mercy is sufficient." (Bridge).-" To err is human, to forgive divine." (Pope). 4. Participles used as nouns : "Neither regardeth he the crying of the driver." (Job. xxxix. 7). -" Reading, writing, and cyphering are necessary parts of education."—"Knowledge of the past comes next." (Harris).—" I am my beloved's." (Sol. Songs, vii. 10). 5. Adverbs used as nouns : "One long now."-"In these cases we examine the why, the what, and the how of things."- 'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter." (Addison). 6. Conjunctions used as nouns : "None of your ifs." (Shakspeare).— "Your if is the only peacemaker; much virtue lies in an if" (Shakspeare). 7. Interjections used as nouns : "Will cuts him short with a What then?" (Addison).—“ With hark and whoop and wild halloo," (Scott). 8. Other words used as nouns: "Us is a personal pronoun." (Murray). "I and J were formerly expressed by the same character, as were U and V." (Allen)." Th has two sounds." ." (Murray).- -"Let B. be a now or instant." (Harris).-" Within this wooden O." (Shakspeare). "Here are eight ands in one sentence." (Blair). From the study of these instances you will learn the grounds of the rule given by Campbell, in his Rhetoric, "All words and signs taken technically (that is, independent of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of) are nouns; or rather are things read and construed (constructed) as nouns; as, 'For this reason I prefer contemporary to cotemporary.' You will also see that adjectives, when they represent more than one, take s in the plural, as if they were nouns; e. g., the ancients, the elders. Yet we do not say the wises, but the wise. The reason seems to be, that elder and ancient, though adjectives in form and import originally, have come to have a permanent force as nouns; as is seen in the fact that you can say "an ancient," "an elder;" but you cannot sy "a wise;" "a sage," you can say, though, sage and wise are nearly the same in meaning, and though properly they are both adjectives. These remarks illustrate the extent to which usage prevails in language, and show that in a living language so rich as the English, rules to which no exception can be given are not easily laid down. In the French language adjectives are used as nouns much more than in English. A slavish adherence to the French idiom in this particular on the part of ignorant translators, has led to the introduction of words for which no sufficient authority can be found. Les religieux is a French designation of monks and nuns. This has been literally rendered into "the religious," a phrase which in English, if it means anything, does not mean what is meant by its Gallic original. That word original is an instance of an adjective, which, while it retains the force of an adjective, has acquired the quality and the rights of a noun. Accordingly we can say "this original," "that original,' "the originals," but only in certain peculiar significations. In such a case as this it is dangerous to yield to analogy, and usage must be rigidly followed. Even usage, however, is not to be obeyed, if it is not present usage, or has not the popular sanction. Consequently, the following from Steele (one of the writers in the Spectator) is not to be imitated"For such impertinents;" "He is an ignorant in it." With the aid of the logical terms, abstract and concrete, two other divisions of nouns are formed. Qualities may be considered under two aspects. They may be considered as belonging to some subject, as white paper; or they may be considered as altogether detached from any subject, as whiteness. In the former we regard the quality in question as concrete, in the latter as abstract. Hence whiteness is an abstract noun. Abstract nouns are numerous in English, being readily formed from their respective concrete adjectives by certain terminations, as black, blackness; pure, purity. If regard is had to the origin of nouns, we may be led to recognise another class, namely, verbal nouns. Verbal nouns are such as are formed from verbs; e. g., "If the blood of bulls sanctifieth to the purifying of the flesh." (Heb. ix. 13). Here purifying is a noun derived from the verb to purify. The addition of the syllable ing, or the employment of the present participle as a noun, is a very prolific source of nouns. But observe, when a noun is thus formed, it has the attributes because it performs the functions of a noun. Now a noun is connected with another noun, when the one is dependent on the other, by the preposition of. Thus we say, "the purification of the temple." In the same way we ought to say the purifying of the temple. But inaccurate writers, while they use verbal nouns as nouns, allow them to retain their qualities as participles or parts of verbs, and deprive them of their rights as nouns; omitting the connecting of, and writing thus, "to the purifying the flesh;" "his handling the subject was good." NOUNS COMMON AND PROPER. NOUNS are ordinarily divided into common and proper. This is the most general division of nouns. A common noun is a noun which is common to a whole class or kind. Tree is a common noun, for it may be used of any tree, and of the whole class; thus used as a noun, by its being constructed as a noun; that is, by its having connected with it such particles as nouns commonly take. Now, nouns take before them the articles, the and a; and they have after them the preposition of. Consequently those words are nouns which have the or a before them, and of after them. Attend to these instances of WORDS USED AS NOUNS. 1. Adjectives used as nouns: "The blacks of Africa are bought and Bold.”—“The Ancient of Days did sit” (Dan. vii. 9).—“ Of the ancients." (Swift). 2. Pronouns used as nouns: "The nameless He whose nod is nature's birth.” (Young).—“I was wont to load my she with knacks.” (Shakspeare).- When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the writer." (Cobbett).-" Let those two try to do this with their whos and their whiches." (Spectator). 3. Verbs used as nouns. "The officer erred in granting a permit.”— "A may be of mercy is sufficient." (Bridge).—"To err is human, to forgive divine." (Pope). 4. Participles used as nouns : Neither regardeth he the crying of the driver." (Job. xxxix. 7) —“Reading, writing, and cyphering are necessary parts of education.”—“Knowledge of the past comes next.” (Harris).-" -"I am my beloved's." (Sol. Songs, vii. 10). 5. Adverbs used as nouns : "One long now."—" In these cases we examine the why, the what, and the how of things.""-"'Tis Heaven itself that points out an hereafter." (Addison). 6. Conjunctions used as nouns: "None of your ifs." (Shakspeare).— "Your if is the only peacemaker; much virtue lies in an if." (Shakspeare). 7. Interjections used as nouns : "Will cuts him short with a What then?" (Addison).—“ With hark and whoop and wild halloo." (Scott). 8. Other words used as nouns : "Us is a personal pronoun." (Murray). "I and J were formerly expressed by the same character, as were U and V." (Allen).—“Th has two sounds." (Murray).—“ Let B. be a now or instant." (Harris). -" Within this wooden O." (Shakspeare). "Here are eight ands in one sentence." (Blair). From the study of these instances you will learn the grounds of the rule given by Campbell, in his Rhetoric, "All words and signs taken technically (that is, independent of their meaning, and merely as things spoken of) are nouns; or rather are things read and construed (constructed) as nouns; as, 'For this reason I prefer contemporary to cotemporary.' You will also see that adjectives, when they represent more than one, take s in the plural, as if they were nouns; e. g., the ancients, the elders. Yet we do not say the wises, but the wise. The reason seems to be, that elder and ancient, though adjectives in form and import originally, have come to have a permanent force as nouns; as is seen in the fact that you can say an ancient," "an elder;" but you cannot 81y "a wise;" "a sage," you can say, though, sage and wise are nearly the same in meaning, and though properly they are both adjectives. These remarks illustrate the extent to which usage prevails in language, and show that in a living language so rich as the English, rules to which no exception can be given are not easily laid down. In the French language adjectives are used as nouns much more than in English. A slavish adherence to the French idiom in this particular on the part of ignorant translators, has led to the introduction of words for which no sufficient authority can be found. Les religieux is a French designation of monks and nuns. This has been literally rendered into "the religious," a phrase which in English, if it means anything, does not mean what is meant by its Gallic original. That word original is an instance of an adjective, which, while it retains the force of an adjective, has acquired the quality and the rights of a noun. Accordingly we can say "this original," "that original," "the originals,"-but only in certain peculiar significations. In such a case as this it is dangerous to yield to analogy, and usage must be rigidly followed. Even usage, however, is not to be obeyed, if it is not present usage, or has not the popular sanction. Consequently, the following from Steele (one of the writers in the Spectator) is not to be imitated"For such impertinents;" "He is an ignorant in it." With the aid of the logical terms, abstract and concrete, two other divisions of nouns are formed. Qualities may be considered under two aspects. They may be considered as belonging to some subject, as white paper; or they may be considered as altogether detached from any subject, as whiteness. In the former we regard the quality in question as concrete, in the latter as abstract. Hence whiteness is an abstract noun. Abstract nouns are numerous in English, being readily formed from their respective concrete adjectives by certain terminations, as black, blackness; pure, purity. If regard is had to the origin of nouns, we may be led to recognise another class, namely, verbal nouns. Verbal nouns are such as are formed from verbs; e. g., "If the blood of bulls sanctifieth to the purifying of the flesh." (Heb. ix. 13). Here purifying is a noun derived from the verb to purify. The addition of the syllable ing, or the employment of the present participle as a noun, is a very prolific source of nouns. But observe, when a noun is thus formed, it has the attributes because it performs the functions of a noun. Now a noun is connected with another noun, when the one is dependent on the other, by the preposition of. Thus we say, "the purification of the temple." In the same way we ought to say the purifying of the temple. But inaccurate writers, while they use verbal nouns as nouns, allow them to retain their qualities as participles or parts of verbs, and deprive them of their rights as nouns; omitting the connecting of, and writing thus, "to the purifying the flesh;' "his handling the subject was good." NOUNS COMMON AND PROPER. NOUNS are ordinarily divided into common and proper. This is the most general division of nouns. A common noun is a noun which is common to a whole class or kind. Tree is a common noun, for it may be used of any tree, and of the whole class; thus |