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proaches a passive signification. Hence the ambiguity which exists in what grammarians term "the passive voice present tense;" e. g. The house is built.

The boy is loved.

When we say

"the boy is loved" we signify a present fact; but when we say "the house is built," we mean, that the house stands there complete.

When a process is meant it is better to say,

or to employ the active form, as,

The house is building.

I am reading the volume.

Some, however, prefer,

The house is being built.

Besides there is an

But this form has no sufficient authority. evident absurdity in speaking of a thing as at the same moment past and present, e. g. being built.

ADVERBS.

ADVERBS qualify the action of verbs, and so stand in the relation to verbs which is borne by the adjective toward the noun. Now an action may be viewed either as to the place where it was done, the time when it was done, and the manner in which it was done; e. g. The theft was adroitly committed here yesterday.

In this instance the place is indicated by here, the time is indicated by yesterday, the manner is indicated by adroitly.

But manner is a quality which admits of variation; one theft may be committed more or less adroitly than another; a theft may be committed most adroitly.

We thus obtain four classes of adverbs, 1. Adverbs of place, 2. Adverbs of time. 3. Adverbs of manner. 4. Adverbs of degree.

Adverbs may be regarded also in reference to their component parts, and may so be divided into, 1. the primitive, 2. the derivative, 3. the compound. Of primitive adverbs take as instances when, then, here, there; of derivative adverbs take as instances justly (from just), yearly, surprisingly. Of compound adverbs take as instances sometimes, nowhere, to-morrow.

I will first say a few words on the formation of adverbs and then present a number of adverbs arranged in classes, ending this chapter with some remarks on certain adverbs which may require elucidation.

The manner in which compound adverbs are formed from simpler forms is very obvious. Sometimes is made up of the adjective some and the noun times, oftentimes consists of the adverb often and the noun times.

Adverbs are ordinarily formed by the addition of the ending ly to a noun, an adjective, or a participle; as man, manly, wise, wisely, loving, lovingly. The termination ly is an adjective as well as an adverb termination, being from the German lich, as in mannlich

(Anglo-Saxon lice) manly; but in early, dearly, &c. it has an adverbial force.

When an adjective terminates in ly, the adverbial suffix ly is not added; the second ly being omitted for the sake of sound, since such forms as godlily, heavenlily, friendlily would be very unpleasant; accordingly we say "he was received" not friendlily but amicably, or " in a friendly manner."

If the adjective ends in le, the termination is changed into ly; as noble, nobly, for noblely; so idle, idly. In whole, the 7 is doubled, as whole, wholly.

Adjectives of more than one syllable ending in y change the y into i before ly, as easy, easily; angry, angrily, hearty, heartily. Monosyllables ending in y either retain the y or change it into i; as dry, dryly, day, daily.

If the adjective ends in a double, y simply is added; as full, fully; but manful, manfully; cheerful, cheerfully.

The degree is marked in adverbs of degree by more and most, less and least; as wisely, more wisely, most wisely; actively, less actively, least actively.

But inflection properly so called belongs to some few adverbs; as late, later, latest; near, nearer, nearest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon, sooner, soonest. Hence we find in adverbs the forms er and est used in forming the degrees of comparison in adjectives.

There also occur adverbs which are irregularly formed; as ill, worse, worst; well, better, best; much, more, most; lately, latterly, lastly. Worse and worst are, however, from a root different to that from which ill comes; so is it with well, better, best.

Adverbs of place may be subdivided into those which answer to the question where? those which answer to the question whither? those which answer to t. e question whence? and those which denote order.

1. Adverbs of place at, or in, which are-where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. The preference for a long-drawn sound at the end of a word has added an s to these three words, making them hereabouts, thereabouts, whereabouts; the same regard to sound has converted the preposition toward into towards. The retention of the s is a matter of doubtful propriety.

2. Adverbs which denote motion to a certain place are-whither, hither, thither, up, down, back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homeward, inward, upward, downward, Lackward, forward. Some of the adverbs ending in ward are also used as adjectives; e. g. a forward (froward) child, a backward scholar; when used with an adverbial force they are often found terminating in s, as backwards, outwards. Up and down may have the construction of prepositions; as,

Up the side of the house ran the flames.

The bucket went down the side of the well.

In order to know whether these and other words are adverbs or prepositions, you must study their construction. If, as here, nouns

are dependent on them, they are prepositions; but if they go in immediate union with verbs, they are adverbs.

3. The third subdivision embraces adverbs which denote motion from, or to a place; as thence, whence, hence; sometimes pleonastically given, as from hence, &c.; the word pleonastically (from the Greek) is employed to signify that more is said than is necessary to convey the sense according to the laws of grammar.

4. Besides, there are adverbs which indicate the order of place; as first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c.; thus secondly means in the second place in a series of heads or topics constituting a discourse, a speech, a chapter in a book.

Adverbs of time may be arranged in the following classes.

1. Adverbs of time present; now, to-day, now-a-days, yet, instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith. It is curious that presently, though from present, has ceased to refer to the present, and now refers to time shortly to come.

2. Adverbs of time past; already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday, formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long ago.

3. Adverbs of time to come; to-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by-and-by, soon, ere long, shortly.

4. Adverbs of time relative; when, then, first, before, just now, after, while, meanwhile, seasonably, betimes, early, late, whenever, afterward.

5. Adverbs of time absolute; always, ever, aye, never, eternally, for ever, evermore, endlessly, everlastingly.

6. Adverbs of time repeated; oft, often, again, occasionally, frequently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually, once, twice, thrice, three times.

Adverbs of manner may be placed in these categories; namely: 1. Manner from quality; well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, wickedly.

2. Affirmation or negation; yea, nay, yes, no, not, nowise, nohow, verily, truly, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, forsooth, that is, for truth, equal to "indeed!" (used ironically) amen.

3. Doubt or uncertainty, haply (by hap, that is by chance) perhaps, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may be.

4. Manner generally taken; thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however, howsoever, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily, extempore (offhand, without the aid of a manuscript), headlong, lengthwise.

There are many adverbial phrases, such as, not at all, in no way, by no means, in fine, &c. These may be considered as forming adverbial compounds. Indeed compound adverbs might be termed adverbial phrases. The following may also be conveniently ranked among adverbial phrases; not a rush ("I care not a rush") not a groat, post (he travels post).

Adverbs are occasionally employed with the force of nouns; e.g. "Shall I tell you why? Aye, Sir, and wherefore, for they say every why hath a wherefore."-Shakspeare.

Adverbs are found where adjectives would be used, if adjectives of the requisite kind existed. Thus we say "the present bishop of London," also a former bishop, and a future bishop, but we have no adjective to characterise a bishop as being a bishop at a particular point of time past, and so we say "the then bishop ;" the licence may be considerable, but it prevents an awkward circumlocution; e. g.

"The then bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty."— Clarendon.

Adverbs are sometimes superseded by adjectives; thus we say. speak low, look sweet, drink deep, run quick, rise early, go to bed late, cut short, look clean, deal hard, scarce seven. In some instances, however, the adjective retains its own power, and expresses a meaning different from that which would ensue from the corresponding abverb. Thus,

Adjective.
Adverb.

She looks sweet.
She looks sweetly.

These two forms vary in meaning; the first signifies that she is not only sweet, but looks so; the second means that whether she is sweet or not, she throws out a sweet look.

THE CONJUNCTION: THE INTERJECTION.

Conjunctions (from cum with and jungo I join) are words whose office is to connect words together. They are closely allied to adverbs. It is sometimes not easy to determine whether a word is a conjunction or an adverb. Therefore and wherefore, for instance, have been called conjunctions, they have also been placed among the adverbs. If, however, we adhere to our definitions we should declare therefore and wherefore as conjunctions, since they connect words rather than qualify a verb.

Conjunctions also connect sentences. Those sentences may be complete or incomplete.

While conjunctions connect words they may disconnect ideas;

e. g.

The man or the woman was drowned.

The or connects together man and woman, but so as to leave it doubtful of which of the two the assertion in the verb is to be made. This view removes the apparent absurdity of what are called disjunctive conjunctions, that is, in plain Saxon, not-joining joiners. But a word may join in one way and disjoin in another. Conjunctions may be divided into the copulative, the disjunctive, and the corresponsive.

The copulative are those which simply join words, as and.

The disjunctive are those which while joining words disjoin affirmations; as or; e. g.

The man or the woman died.

Here man and woman are connected in form by the disjunctive conjunction or, and by the same particle they are disjoined in regard to the declaration made in the verb. One of the two died, but which of the two died, the reporter does not know,

The corresponsive are such conjunctions as introduce corresponding sentences or members of a sentence, forming in each case a pair of corresponding or contrasted objects; as if, then; whether, or. Copulative Conjunctions.

And, as, both, because, even, for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so, whereas, that.

Disjunctive Conjunctions.

Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless.

Corresponsive Conjunctions.

Both-and; as-as; as-so; if-then; either-or; neithernor; whether-or; though-yet.

This division proceeds on the ground of the functions which conjunctions discharge. If we contemplate conjunctions in regard to their import also, we may divide them into these classes :—

1. Copulative, and, also, both.

2. Disjunctive, either, or, neither, nor.

3. Concessive, though, although, albeit.

4. Adversative, but, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless.

5. Causal, for, that, because.

6. Inferential, therefore, wherefore, seeing, since, forasmuch. 7. Final, that, in order that, to the end that.

8. Conditional, but, if.

9. Exceptive, unless, save, except.

10. Diminutive, at least.

11. Dubitative, whether or not.

12. Expletive, now, truly, indeed.

13. Ordinative, thereafter, finally, moreover, however.

14. Declarative, namely, to wit.

The

The concessive are such as denote a concession or yielding. The adversative are such as denote opposition or contrast. The causal are such as denote a cause, occasion, reason, or ground. inferential are such as denote an inference or deduction. The final are such as denote an end, aim or object. The conditional are such as denote a condition or requirement. The expletive are such as denote words which fill up a sentence not being absolutely necessary to the sense. The ordinative are such as denote the order, rank, or succession of things or acts. The declarative are such as supply explanations.

It may be doubtful whether save and except are ever used as conjunctions.. In an instance given in proof that save is a conjunction, namely,

"And nothing wanting is, save she, alas!"'-Drummond of Haw

thornden.

the she ought to be her, as in the following, where the pronoun is governed in the objective by save :-

"And all were gone, save him, who now kept guard."—Rogers. Conjunctions are words of great importance They are the very hinges on which turn the boundless thoughts of man.

For

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