BIBLE. copy, being bought up and burnt by Tonstal, Bishop of London, and Sir Thomas More, Tindal put forth a new edition in 1527, and a third in 1528; and two years after, his translation of the Pentateuch appeared at Hamburgh, together with another edition of his Testament. In 1531 he published an English version of the prophet Jonah, with a prologue full of invective against the church of Rome. Strype supposes that, before his death, he finished the whole Bible except the Apocrypha, which was translated by John Rogers: but it seeins more probable that he translated only the historical parts. On Tindal's return to Antwerp in 1531, he was seized and imprisoned; and, after a long confinement, was put to death in 1536, at Villefort near Brussels, on the charge of heresy; being first strangled, and his body afterwards reduced to ashes.

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In 1535, the whole Bible translated into English was printed in folio, and dedicated to King Henry VIII. by Miles Coverdale, whom Edward VI. afterwards promoted to the see of Exeter. This was the first edition published by royal authority. In 1537 another edition of the English Bible was published by John Rogers, martyr it is chiefly Tindal's and Coverdale's, somewhat altered; and appeared under the assumed name of Thomas Matthewe. A revised edition of this translation, corrected by Cranmer and Coverdale, was printed at London in 1539, by Grafton and Whitchurch, in very large folio; which, from its size, is usually denominated the Great Bible. No new version was executed during the reign of Edward VI.; though several editions were printed, both of the Old and New Testaments.

During the reign of Queen Mary, Miles Coverdale, John Knox, Christopher Goodman, and other exiles, who had taken refuge at Geneva, published the Book of Psalms there, in 1559, with marginal notes; and in the following year, the whole Bible appeared, with summaries, marginal notes, maps, and brief annotations. From the place of publication, this is usually called the Geneva Bible: it was highly esteemed by the Puritans, and within the short space of forty years, (from 1560 to 1616,) upwards of thirty editions were printed in varicus sizes, principally by the King's printers. Eight years after the completion of this translation, another new version was published at London, with two prefaces by Archbishop Parker: it is now generally termed the Bishops' Bible, from the circumstance of eight of the translators being Bishops. This version was used in the churches for forty years, though the Geneva Bible was more read in private houses.

In the year 1582, the Romanists, finding it impossible to withhold the Scriptures any longer from the common people, printed an English New Testament at Rheims it was translated, not from the Greek, but from the Latin Vulgate, and the editors (whose names are not known) retained a multitude of words, of Greek origin, untranslated and unexplained, under the pretext of wanting proper and adequate English terms, by which to render them; and thus contrived to render it unintelligible to common readers. Two learned confutations of the errors and mistranslations of this version were published, one by Dr. William Fulke in 1617, and the other by Mr. Thomas Cartwright in the following year. In 1609-10, an English translation of the Old Testament was published at

Douay in two volumes quarto, with annotations: this BIBLE. was also made from the Latin Vulgate. This translation, with the Rhemish version of the New Testament above noticed, forms the English Bible, which alone is used by the Romanists of this country.

Protestant

The last English version which remains to be noticed, Authorized is the authorized translation now in use, which is com- version. monly called King James's Bible. Shortly after his accession to the throne in 1603, several objections being made to the Bishops' Bible, at the conference held at Hampton Court in the following year, the King commanded that a new version should be undertaken, and fifty-four learned men were appointed to this important labour; but, before it was commenced, seven of the persons nominated were either dead or had declined the task; for the list, as given us by Fuiler, (Church Hist. book x. p. 44-47.) comprises only forty-seven names. All of them, however, were pre-eminently distinguished for their piety, and for their profound learning in the original languages of the Sacred Writings and such of them as survived till the commencement of the work were divided into six classes. Ten were to meet at Westminster, and to translate from the Pentateuch to the end of the second Book of Kings. Eight, assembled at Cambridge, were to finish the rest of the Historical Books, and the Hagiographa. At Oxford, seven were to undertake the four greater Prophets, with the Lamentations of Jeremiah, and the twelve minor Prophets. The four Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, and the Apocalypse, were assigned to another company of eight, also at Oxford: and the Epistles of Saint Paul, together with the remaining canonical Epistles, were allotted to another company of seven, at Westminster. Lastly, another company, at Cambridge, were to translate the Apocryphal Books, including the prayer of Manasseh. Agreeably to the regulations given to these six companies, each book passed the scrutiny of all the translators successively. In the first instance, each individual translated every book, which was allotted to his division. Secondly, the readings to be adopted were agreed upon by the whole of that company assembled together, at which meeting each translator must have been solely occupied by his own version. The book, thus finished, was sent to each of the other companies to be again examined; and at these meetings it probably was, as Selden informs us, that "one read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian, &c. If they found any fault, they spoke; if not, he read on." (Table Talk, art. Bible.) Further, the translators were empowered to call to their assistance any learned men, whose studies enabled them to be serviceable, when an urgent occasion of difficulty presented itself. The translation was commenced in the spring of 1607, and the completion of it occupied almost three years. At the expiration of that time, three copies of the whole Bible, thus translated and revised, were sent to London, -one from Oxford, one from Cambridge, and a third from Westminster. Here a committee of six, two being deputed by the companies at Oxford, two by those at Cambridge, and two by those at Westminster, reviewed and polished the whole work which was finally revised by Dr. Smith (afterwards Bishop of Gloucester), who wrote the preface, and by Dr. Bilson, Bishop of Winchester. This translation of the Bible

BIBLE. was first published in folio in 1611, and is that now universally adopted wherever the English language is spoken. It was printed by the King's printers, by whom succeeding editions have continued to be printed: and the competition between them and the two Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, led to the smuggling of Dutch editions into England, between the years 1630 and 1660; numerous errors, and some of them, of great importance, have been detected in the English and Dutch copies of this date. (D'Israeli's Curiosities of Literature, 2d series, vol. iii. p. 313–325.) In 1683, this translation was corrected, and many references to parallel texts were added by Dr. Scattergood; and in 1701, a very fine edition was published in large folio, under the direction of Dr. Tenison, Archbishop of Canterbury, with chronological dates, and an index by Bishop Lloyd, and accurate tables of Scripture weights and measures by Bishop Cumberland: but this edition is said to abound with typographical errors. The latest and most complete revision is that made by the late Rev. Dr. Blayney, under the direction of the Vice-chancellor and delegates of the Clarendon Press, at Oxford. In this edition, which was printed, both in quarto and folio, in 1769, the punctuation was thoroughly revised; the words printed in Italics were examined and corrected by the Hebrew and Greek originals; the proper names, to the etymology of which allusions are made in the text, were translated and entered in the margin; the summaries of chapters and running titles at the top of each page corrected; some material errors in the chronology rectified; and the marginal references were re-examined and corrected, and thirty thousand four hundred and ninety-five new references were inserted in the margin. From the singular pains bestowed, in order to render this edition as accurate as possible, it has hitherto been considered the standard edition, from which all subsequent impressions have been executed. Notwithstanding, however, the great labour and attention bestowed by Dr. Blayney, his edition must now yield the palm of accuracy to the very beautiful and correct edition published by Messrs. Eyre and Strahan, his Majesty's printers, but printed by Mr. Woodfall in 1806, and again in 1812, in quarto; as not fewer than one hundred and sixteen errors were discovered in collating the edition of 1806 with Dr. B.'s, and one of these errors was an omission of considerable importance. After the publication of the present authorized translation, all the other versions gradually fell into disuse, with the exception of the Psalms, and the Epistles and Gospels in the Book of Common Prayer, which were still continued,—the former according to the translation in Cranmer's Bible, and the latter according to that of the Bishops' Bible, until the final revisal of the Liturgy of the Church of England; at which time the Epistles and Gospels were taken from the present version, but the Psalms are still retained according to the translation of Cranmer's Bible.

Upwards of two centuries have elapsed, since the authorized English version of the Scriptures, now in use, was given to the British nation. During that long interval, though many passages in particular books have been ably elucidated by learned men; yet its general fidelity, perspicuity, and excellence, have deservedly given our present translation a high and distinguished place in the judgment of the Christian world, wherever the English language is known or

read. It has survived the convulsions both of church BIBL and state during the great rebellion; and it has continued to be used, not only by the Anglican church, but also by all the sects which have withdrawn from her. Toits general accuracy, simplicity, and energy of style, the most accomplished biblical scholars have borne willing and most explicit testimonies; and though of late years it has been virulently assailed, with some semblance of learning, but with no real foundation, by Mr. John Bellamy and Sir James Bland Burges, their attacks have been solidly and completely refuted by the Rev. J. W. Whittaker, in his Historical and Critical Inquiry into the Interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures, (8vo. London, 1819.) and Supplement (Svo. London, 1820.) by the Rev. H. J. Todd, in his Vindication of our authorized Translation and Translators of the Bible, &c. (London, 1819. 8vo.) and in his Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Bishop Walton, (London, 1821. 2 vols. 8vo.) and by the Rev. Professor Lee, in A Letter to Mr. John Bellamy, (London, 1821. 8vo.) In fact, when the very few real faults are considered, which the most minute and scrupulous inquirers have been able to find in the present translation,-and when we perceive the most distinguished critics of modern times producing very discordant interpretations of the same text or word, we cannot but call to mind, with gratitude and admiration, the integrity, wisdom, fidelity, and learning of the venerable translators, of whose labours we are now reaping the benefit: who, while their reverence for the sacred Scriptures induced them to be as literal as they could, to avoid obscurity, have been extremely happy in the simplicity and dignity of their expressions; and who, by their strict adherence to the Hebrew idiom, have at once enriched and adorned the English language.

Bible.

2. Welsh Version.-Some portions of the Bible are Welsh said to have been translated into the ancient British or Welsh language, before and during the reign of Edward VI.; but no efficient steps were taken for sup plying the inhabitants of the principality of Wales with the Scriptures until the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In consequence of an act of Parliament passed in 1563, commanding that the Old and New Testaments, toge ther with the Book of Common Prayer, should be translated into the Welsh tongue, and committing the direction of the work to the Bishops of Saint Asaph, Bangor, Saint David's, Llandaff, and Hereford: in 1567 the New Testament was printed; but the Old Testament did not appear until the year 1588. It was translated by Dr. William Morgan, successively Bishop of Llandaff and Saint Asaph; who also revised the previous version of the New Testament. During the reign of James I. the Welsh version underwent a further examination and correction from Dr. Parry, who succeeded Bishop Morgan in the see of Llandaff. This corrected version was printed at London in 1620, and is the basis of all subsequent editions.

Bible

3. Irish Version.—The New Testament having been Irish translated into Irish by Dr. William Daniel, Archbishop of Tuam, Dr. Bedell, who was advanced to the see of Kilmore and Ardagh in 1629, procured the Old Testament to be translated by a Mr. King: who, being ignorant of the original languages, executed it from the English version. Bishop Bedell therefore revised and compared it with the Hebrew, the Septuagint, and the Italian version of Diodati. He supported Mr. King, while engaged on his important work; and on

LE. the completion of the translation, he would have printed it in his own house, and at his own charge, if he had not been prevented by the troubles in Ireland. The manuscript, however, escaped the hands of the rebels, and was subsequently printed in 1685, at the expense of the Hon. Robert Boyle.

4. Manks Version.-Towards the close of his life, the truly venerable Bishop of Sodor and Mann, Dr. Thomas Wilson, formed a plan for translating the New Testament into the Manks language. He procured the four Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles to be translated; but lived only to see the Gospel of St. Matthew printed at his expense. His exemplary successor, Bishop Hildesley, caused the manuscript to be revised, and procured the translation of the New Testament to be completed: this, by the munificent aid of the venerable Society for promoting Christian knowledge, and of some benevolent individuals, he was enabled to print between the years 1756 and 1760. In 1763, he was encouraged, by the influx of benefactions, (obtained chiefly in consequence of that society's applications,) to undertake a Manks version of the Old Testament, which was completed only two days before his decease, on the 30th of November 1772. In the following year, the entire Bible, together with the Apocryphal Books, was printed at the expense of the same venerable society; which in 1776 published another edition of the New Testament.

5. Gaelic Version.-The Society in Scotland for propagating Christian knowledge, has the honour of giving to the inhabitants of the Highlands the Holy Scriptures in the Gaelic dialect. The New Testament was translated from the Greek by the Rev. James Stuart, minister of Killin, and printed at their expense in the year 1767. The several books of the Old Testament were translated and published, in four detached por tions or volumes, viz. the Prophetical Books by the Rev. Dr. Smith, in 1783, and the remaining books by the Rev. Dr. John Stuart, minister of Luss, (son of the translator of the New Testament,) in three parts, which appeared successively in the years 1783, 1787, In 1807, a new and revised edition of the whole Gaelic Bible was printed; which, in 1816, received the approbation of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. (Horne's Introd. vol. ii. part i. ch. vi. sect. iii. Townley's Illustrations of Biblical Literature, vol. iii.)

and 1801.

§ V. Polyglott Bibles.

Polyglott Bibles are editions of the sacred texts, accompanied with versions of the Scriptures in several languages. The honour of having first conceived the plan of a Polyglott Bible is due to the celebrated printer, Aldus Manutius the elder: but of this projected undertaking, only one sheet was ever printed, in collateral columns of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, in the year 1501. In 1516 there was printed at Genoa the Pentaglott Psalter of Agostino Justiniani, Bishop of Nebo it was in Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, Greek, and Latin, and was accompanied by glosses and scholia. In 1518, John Potken published the Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Ethiopic, at Cologne. But the first Polyglott edition of the entire Bible is that usually called the

Complutensian Polyglott from Alcala in Spain, the Latin name of which city is Complutum. The printing of this celebrated work was begun in 1502: though

completed in 1517, it was not published until the year BIBLE. 1522, and cost the munificent Cardinal Ximenes (Prime Minister of Spain) the sum of fifty thousand ducats. This Polyglott is usually divided into six parts or volumes: the first four comprise the Old Testament, with the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in three distinct columns; the Chaldee paraphrase being at the bottom of the page with a Latin interpretation: and the margin is filled with Hebrew and Chaldee radicals. The fifth volume contains the New Testament in Greek, with the Latin Vulgate version, and interpretations of the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek names occurring therein; and the sixth volume is filled with various critical tracts. It is not known what is become of the manuscripts that were consulted for this edition. The impression was limited to six hundred copies, three of which were struck off on vellum. One of these was deposited in the Royal library at Madrid; a second in the Royal library at Turin; and the third (which is supposed to have belonged to the Cardinal himself) after passing through various hands, was purchased at the sale of Signor Pinelli's library in 1789, for the late Count M'Carthy of Toulouse, for four hundred and eighty-three pounds. On the sale of this nobleman's library at Paris in 1817, it was bought by George Hibbert, Esq. for 16,100 francs, or £676. 38. 4d. sterling. Copies of the Complutensian Polyglott, on paper, are in the libraries of the British Museum and Sion College, and also in several of the College libraries in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

The Complutensian Polyglott was followed and Antwerp excelled by that printed at Antwerp, by the eminent Polyglott. printer, Christopher Plantin, between the years 1569 and 1572, in eight volumes folio: it is commonly known by the appellation of the Antwerp Polyglott, and sometimes as the Spanish and Royal Polyglott, frora being published under the patronage of Philip II. King of Spain. It was printed in Hebrew, Greek, Latin and Chaldee; and contains, besides the whole of the Complutensian Polyglott, a Chaldee paraphrase of part of the Old Testament, which Cardinal Ximenes had deposited in the public library at Alcala; having particular reasons for not publishing it. This edition has a Syriac version of the New Testament, and the Latin version of Santes Pagninus, as reformed by Arias Montanus, who was the principal editor of this noble work. The first five volumes contain the Old and New Testaments, in the languages above stated; and the three last are filled with lexicons and grammars of the various languages in which the Scriptures are printed, together with indexes, and a treatise on sacred antiquities. Of this Polyglott, only five hundred copies were printed; the greater part of which being lost in a voyage to Spain, complete sets of it are of rare occurrence.

The Paris Polyglott, printed by Antoine Vitré be- Paris tween the years 1628 and 1645, is in ten large folio Polyglott. volumes; and is one of the most magnificent works that ever issued from the press. It was executed at the expense of M. Le Jay, who was ruined by the undertaking; and contains all that is inserted in the Complutensian and Antwerp Polyglotts, with several important additions, particularly of the Samaritan Pentateuch and its version. One great inconvenience in this edition is, that the Samaritan, the Syriac, and the Arabic are not placed in parallel columns, but

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BIBLE. occur in different volumes. It is also defective, in having no critical apparatus or prolegomena, nor any of the grammars and lexicons which 'accompany the former Polyglotts.

BIBLICISTS.

London

Though less magnificent than the three preceding Polyglott. editions, the London Polyglott is in all other respects preferable, being more ample and more commodious. It was published at London in 1657, in six folio volumes, under the superintendence of Dr. Bryan Walton, afterwards Bishop of Chester, assisted by several learned men. The first volume contains a very extensive critical apparatus, (of which the prolegomena, written by Bishop Walton, are a treasure of sacred criticism,) and also the Pentateuch. The second and third volumes comprise the Books of the Old Testament; the fourth has the Apocryphal Books; the fifth contains the New Testament; and the sixth is composed of various readings and critical remarks. Nine languages are used in this edition, though no one Book of the Bible is printed in so many. This stupendous monument of learning and munificence was commenced in 1653, and finished in 1657; and it was the first work ever printed in England by subscription. The plan of it was approved and encouraged by the exiled monarch Charles II. and also by Oliver Cromwell; the latter allowed the paper to be imported duty free. On the restoration of Charles II. Dr. Walton presented the work to his Majesty, and cancelled two leaves of the Preface, in which he had complimented Cromwell, for which others were substituted, containing compliments to the King; and to some copies he prefixed a Dedication to his Majesty. From these circumstances, the copies which have the original leaves, are called Republican, while those which have the substituted leaves, are termed Loyal copies: the former are most valued. The variations between these two editions are specified by Mr. Butler, in the first volume of his Hora Biblice, and by Dr. A. Clarke in his Bibliographical Dictionary. The London Polyglott is not considered to be complete, without the Lexicon Heptaglotton, published by Dr. Edmund Castell at London, in 1669, in two volumes folio. It contains a joint lexicon of the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Ethiopic, and Arabic languages, together with a separate lexicon of the Persic, and brief grammars of the several tongues. It is perhaps the greatest and most perfect undertaking of the kind, hitherto performed by human industry and learning. Dr. Castell (who was assisted by several learned men) expended both his fortune and his life in this immense undertaking.

Leipzig The Leipzig Polyglott appeared in 1750 in three Polyglott. volumes folio. It was edited by Christian Reineccius. The Old Testament is given in Hebrew, Greek, (from Dr. Grabe's edition of the Alexandrian MS. of the Septuagint) Latin, and German. The Latin version

BIBLI CISTS.

is that of Sebastian Schmidt, revised; and the German BIBLE version is that of Martin Luther. It has marginal notes, and the various readings of the Vatican and other manuscripts. The New Testament is given in ancient and modern Greek, together with the Syriac and German versions. The New Testament was previously published in 1713, and again (with a new title) in 1747.

The great rarity and high price of all former Poly- Second glotts, which render them inaccessible to the majority London of biblical students, induced Mr. Samuel Bagster Polyglott (the publisher) to undertake what may not improperly be called the second London Polyglott Bible. The work was commenced in 1816 and finished in 1823. It is very beautifully printed in two sizes, quarto and octavo; and comprises the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, from Van der Hooght's edition, the Samaritan Pentateuch from Dr. Kennicott's edition of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Septuagint Greek version of the Old Testament, from Bos's edition of the Roman or Vatican text, the Latin Vulgate, and the authorized English version. At the end of the Old Testament, there are given the various readings of the Hebrew and Samaritan Pentateuchs, together with the Masoretic notes, and the various lections of the Alexandrian manuscript as edited by Dr. Grabe, and the Apocryphal chapters of the Book of Esther. The New Testament is given in Greek from Dr. Mill's edition, with the whole of the important various readings from Dr. Griesbach's edition printed at Leipzig in 1805; and is further accompanied by the Peschito or old Syriac version, the Latin Vulgate and the authorized English version. The Syriac is given from Widmanstadt's edition, (printed at Vienna in 1555), collated with the accurate edition, executed at London in 1816, under the joint superintendence of the late Rev. Dr. Buchanan and the Rev. Samuel Lee, Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. But the Apocalypse and such of the Epistles as are not found in the old Syriac, are given from the Philoxenian or new Syriac version. The text of the Latin Vulgate version is taken from the edition of Pope Clement VIII. The authorized English version is accompanied with the marginal renderings, and a new and useful selection of parallel references. The Hebrew of the quarto copies is pointed; the octavo copies may be procured both with and without points, at the option of the purchaser.

The preceding are the Polyglott editions of the entire Bible, which are most worthy of notice. Besides them there are numerous editions extant, in two or three languages, called Diglotts and Triglotts, as well as Polyglott editions of particular parts of the Scriptures. An account of these will be found in the Bib liotheca Sacra of Le Long, edited by Dr. Marsh, and in Dr. A. Clarke's Bibliographical Dictionary.

BIBLICISTS or BIBLE-DOCTORS, an appellation given to the Schoolmen of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, who made the Scriptures the chief subject of their studies and the text of their lectures, without deriving any succours from reason or philosophy. The method of the Scholastics who were the antagonists

of the Biblicists, exhibited a pompous aspect of learning; and, as these subtile doctors seemed to surpass their adversaries in sagacity and genius, they attracted studious youth to them in great multitudes. Several learned men, and even some of the Roman Pontiffs, with great seriousness and warmth, exhorted the

BIBLIOGRAPHY, (from ßßriov, a book, and papw, I describe,) was, originally, a branch of Archaography, or the art of describing or explaining antiquities, and denoted skill in the perusal and judging of ancient manuscripts; but, in its modern and more extended sense, it signifies the knowledge of books, as it regards the materials of which they are composed, their different degrees of rarity, curiosity, reputed and real value, the subjects discussed by their respective authors, and the rank which they ought to hold in the classification of a library.

Considered as a distinct science, Bibliography has been studied most extensively by the literati of France, Germany, and Italy; to whose researches the history of literature is deeply indebted. Great Britain, however, can boast of many learned and distinguished Bibliographers; although it is only of late years comparatively, that Bibliography has been more particularly studied as a science in this country. But it is the fault of many of its votaries, especially in France, that they have exaggerated the value of their favourite pursuit, far beyond that rank to which it is fairly entitled in the scale of human knowledge: and Peignot, Achard, and others (whose writings are noticed in the close of this article,) have represented it as the most extensive, and even universal of all sciences. Bibliography, as pursued by some at least of its most ardent admirers, is little more than a mere knowledge of the "fringe and drapery" of a book: but, if it go not beyond this, it goes no useful length. If it excite no other sentiment but that of cold and distant admiration, it is a euriosity at once stupid and irregular; and its effect never can tend to invigorate the mind, or to people the imagination with ideas. To be useful, Bibliography must teach us to read what is valuable,-not merely what is rare; to make a love of books instrumental to a love of knowledge; to examine as well as to open volumes; and to apply our knowledge of what other ages have written and done, towards the improvement of that in which we live. Such is the true end and design of Bibliography.

Conformably to the brief definition above given, it is the province of the Bibliographer to be acquainted with the materials of which books are composed, and their different forms :-he knows not only the best treatises that have been written on any particular topic, and the various editions of books, but also in what important respects one differs from another; when and from what cause omissions were made, deficiencies supplied, errors corrected, and additions subjoined. Where books have been published either anonymously or pseudonymously, he indicates the real name of the concealed author; and, with regard to the rarity of books, he is acquainted with all the causes which have contributed to render them scarce. Finally,

VOL. XVIII.

as a library destitute of arrangement is a mere chaos, the Bibliographer disposes the books which it comprises, in such an order, as will present an agreeable appearance to the eye; and, in compiling a catalogue, he assigns to them that place which they ought to hold in the system of classification adopted for arranging a library.

Such are the legitimate duties of the Bibliographer: and it must be admitted that they require a variety of knowledge, which is rarely possessed by a single individual. Hence different writers have discussed particular topics of Bibliography: and from their united labours, we are enabled to collect the multifarious information, which is requisite to constitute a wellinformed Bibliographer.

Books are either manuscript or printed: the former are written with the hand, and offer to the Bibliographer a variety of interesting inquiries. He ought to be conversant with manuscripts of every age, with the materials on which they are written, the instruments anciently employed for writing, and the different characters used for the communication of ideas. The consideration of printed books leads to the knowledge of the history and details of the art of printing. Referring the reader to the articles MANUSCRIPTS, PRINTING, and WRITING, for the necessary information on those topics, the present article will be found to contain the most useful facts and observations on the subject of Bibliography.

§ I. On the Materials of which Books are composed, and their Forms.

Several kinds of materials were anciently used in making books. It is now pretty generally agreed that stone was the first substance on which, in the earliest Stone. ages, figures, and afterwards letters, were engraven. Josephus (Ant. Jud. lib. i. c. 2. sub fine,) speaks of two columns, one of stone, the other of brick, on which the descendants of Seth inscribed their astronomical discoveries: but this relation of the Jewish historian is justly considered as fabulous. From the sacred volume, however, we have indubitable evidence of writing on stone in remote ages. (See Exod. xxxi. 1.) and the use of marble and stone in later times, for perpetuating the remembrance of events, is sufficiently attested by the numerous monuments of antiquity which have escaped destruction by barbarians, or by the consuming hand of time. The ancient Chaldæans engraved or wrote their astronomical observations on bricks, for 720 years, according to Epigenes, or for Bricks. 480 years, according to Berosus and Critodemus, as cited by Pliny. (Nat. Hist. lib. vii. c. 57.) Many of these bricks are still in existence, but, from the repeated failures of the learned, the task of decyphering them may now be regarded as almost hopeless.

3 Y