BRIEF HISTORICAL VIEW OF EUROPE, FROM THE BE GINNING OF THE NINTH TO THAT OF THE SIX TEENTH CENTURY, CONTAINING A PERIOD OF 700 YEARS. THE history of Europe, from the 9th to the 16th century, presents the following important particulars, viz. The decay of the feudal system→ the Crusades-the revival of commerce, followed by that of the liberal arts and sciences-the organization and establishment of several European pow. ers-the origin, rise, and progress of the Turks; and, blended with the whole, a series of bloody and desolating wars, the offspring of ambition and depravity. During the period now before us, we shall, in this and the following chapters, only take notice of such leading traits of character and such events as concerned Europe in general. The feudal system gave a direction to the spirit of freedom, prevalent among the descendants of the conquerors of Rome, with which the ancients were never acquainted. This was fully displayed in the institutions of chivalry and knight errantry. The general object of those institutions appears to have been the promotion and defence of integrity, honor, virtue, innocence, and merit in general. They often, indeed, awakened too keen a sense of injury, and thirst for revenge, and of course terminated in blood: but they certainly led the way to that refinement of sensibilíty which is the chief ornament of civilization. To those institutions must undoubtedly be ascribed the merit of raising the female sex to that rank which they ought to hold, as rational beings and members of society; and of securing to them that treatment-that protection and respect which are due to their softness, their delicacy, and their superior sensibility. The spirit of chivalry carried men to all lengths in defence of their own honor,or of that of the lady whose protection they had avowed. They would run all hazards, dangers, and difficulties-encounter all hardships, or face death in every form. Those principles and passions, when ameliorated by the lapse of ages-when restrained by the influence of enlightened morality and salutary laws, form some of the noblest traits in the human character. And it is pleasing to look back into those barbarous times and see the seeds of order and improvement, even among the Goths and Vandals, which should one day spring up and far transcend the refinements of Greece and Rome. The conquerors of Rome we generally and justly style barbarians; but they were, in many essential respects, less barbarous than the Romans whom they conquered. They had more justice, integrity, and more of every manly virtue. They were far less depraved in their morals, and possessed minds at least capable of improvement. Another custom which was the genuine growth of the feudal system, and which obtained an extensive influence through Europe, was the trial by duel-the most unreasonable and extraordinary practice which perhaps ever obtained among men, under the form of justice and legality. The decision of causes by duel became so credible and so common, that even actions of debt were decided by it. All possible disputes which required the intervention of law were settled in open court, by single combat. The person who failed was considered as having lost his case by an act that was providential and divine. The evils and calamities of this practice were very great. In those times quarrels and controversies were frequent, and litigations incessant; and the whole world, even in time of peace, was overspread with slaughter, mourning, and distress. Those capricious trials were, at every step, liable to take a turn, which strongly marks the licentious freedom of those times; for even the judge on the bench was liable to be challenged for his sentence, or an advocate or evidence at the bar, for his advice or testimony. It was no uncommon thing for the judge to be challenged on account of his decision, the advocate for his counsel, the witness for his testimony, and the friends of one party or the other for their countenance given on the occasion. But a case far more common than this, was, that very often, previous to the day of trial, the plaintiff or defendant, or the evidences or the judge were assassinated. Those were times of cru-’ 'elty, of darkness, and misery. There is great reason of gratitude to that all-powerful, overruling providence which determined that mankind should see happier days. The revival of commerce was one of the natural consequences resulting from the spirit of liberty and enterprize prevalent in the feudal system. The ancient nations generally regarded every species of traffic as attaching to itself a certain kind of ignominy and degradation unworthy of nobility. But that reproach was wholly wiped away in the revival of com merce, and it was thought not unworthy of the patronage and attention of lords and princes. m. Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and several other of the Ital ian cities having obtained certain privileges and exemptions from feudal customs, led the way in European commerce. They soon rose to a degree of wealth and independence which gave them an influ ence in all the great concerns of Europe. Venice was the first, the most powerful and permanent républic which rose after the fall of the Roman empire; and; next to Great-Britain, is the most surprising proof which any age affords of the power of commerce. When Maximin, the Roman emperor, besieged the ancient city of Aquileia, the inhabitants,perceiving that the tyrant would carry the city by storm, found means to make their escape in the night, and fled to the marshy grounds which lie at the head of the Adriatic gulph. Those grounds are said to be accessible only by one causeway or pass. Here those unfortunate but hardy people settled on a cluster of little islands, and on flats where the land and water disputed for empire. But the Aquileians stepped in, and wresting the territory from both, built wharves, and dikes, and bridges; and at length, with incredible industry and almost unknown to the world, they raised a noble city, which may be regarded among the cities of modern Europe as the first-born from chaos and darkness. Enriched by commerce, and ennobled by a sudden and surprising revival of taste, it soon became equally splendid and powerful. It merited to have given law to Europe, which, for a while, it had well nigh done. But if it did not govern Europe, it certainly did for her a much more honorable and illustrious task. It saved her from the horrid fangs of Turkish power; and, in so doing, saved her from a second age of darkness....perhaps from irretrievable ruin. The power of the Venetians by sea was such as to be an overmatch for the Turks, till other powers arose in Europe who could cope with them by land. But the commerce of the Italian states filled all the ports of Europe with the richest commodities, and served to awaken a general spirit of enterprize, which had slumbered for many centuries. The empire of Charlemagne, although it survived him but a short time, strengthened and edified the French and German monarchies. Spain, at this time, contained several petty kingdoms; and some of the Italian republics in the ninth and tenth centuries ac |