viii

in Africa-Capitulation of A. Albinus-Indignation at Rome-Prosecutions
of the Optimates-Metellus sent to Afriea, with Marius as legate—Overtures
of Jugurtha-Battle of the river Muthul-Successes of Metellus-He is
repulsed from Zama-Conspiracy of Bomilcar-Rise of Caius Marius-His
marriage with Julia-The soothsayer at Utica-Marius aspires to the con-
sulship-Scorn of Metellus-Election of Marius-Metellus takes Thala-
Bocchus and Jugurtha-Negotiations with Metellus-Marius arrives in Africa
-His first campaign-Taking of Capsa-Expedition to the Molochath-The
last battle of Jugurtha-Treachery of king Bocchus-Mission of Sulla and
capture of Jugurtha-Triumph of Marius-His jealousy of Sulla-The coming
conflict-The Cimbri and Teutones-Defeats of Carbo, Silanus, Longinus,
and of Mallius and Cæpio-Successive consulships of Marius-His victory
over the Teutones at Aix-Victory over the Cimbri-Condition of Rome and
Italy-Insurrections of slaves-Sufferings of the provinces-Piracy-Second
Servile War in Sicily-Sixth consulship of Marius-Births of Cicero, Pompey,
and Cæsar.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

44-80

FIRST PERIOD OF CIVIL WARS.-MARIUS AND SULLA-B.C. 100 TO B.C. 78. Marius is honoured as a second Camillus-His defects-He creates a standing army-His league with Glaucia and Saturninus--The Appuleian laws-Banishment of Metellus-Sedition and death of Saturninus-Triumph of the Optimates-Retirement of Marius-Foreign affairs: Spain and Cyrene-Lex Caecilia-Judicial abuses by the Equites-Q. Scævola in Asia-Condemnation of Rutilius Rufus-Prosecution of Scaurus-Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus -His measures of reform-Their passage and repeal-Assassination of Drusus-Revolt of the Allies The Social or Marsic War-The Italian confederation, and its new capital-The States faithful to Rome-The two scenes of the war-Successes of the insurgents in Campania-L. Julius Cæsar -Defeat and death of Rutilius Lupus-Successes of Marius, Sulla, and Pompeius Strabo-The Romans grant the citizenship to the Allies-The Lex Julia and Lex Plautia Papiria-The franchise in Cisalpine Gaul-Second year of the war-Successes of Pompeius Strabo and Sulla-Resistance of the Samnites-War with Mithridates-Consulship of Sulla-Jealousy of Marius-Tribunate and laws of Sulpicius Rufus-Marius appointed to the command against Mithridates-Sulla marches upon Rome-Flight and adventures of Marius-Proceedings of Sulla-Cinna elected consul-Sulla departs for Asia -Attempt at a counter-revolution-Cinna driven out of Rome- He collects an army-Return of Marius to Italy-Siege and capitulation of RomeMassacre of the Optimates-Seventh consulship of Marius-The first Mithridatic War-Character of Mithridates VI.-Affairs of Cappadocia and Bithynia-Invasion of Asia, and massacre of the Italians-Insurrection of Greece-Sulla lands in Epirus, takes Athens, and defeats ArchelausPeace with Mithridates- The Civil War extends to Asia-Deaths of Flaccus and Fimbria-Sulla returns to Italy-Government and death of Cinna-Preparations for war-Sulla defeats Norbanus-Is joined by Pompey and other leaders of the Optimates-Marius the younger and Papirius Carbo-Defeat of Marius-Massacre at Rome-Sulla defeats the Samnites before the Colline Gate-Death of Marius-Autocracy of Sulla-The first great proscription81-125 Triumph-Dictatorship, and legislation of Sulla-His retirement, death, and

funeral

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE AGE OF POMPEY, CESAR, AND CICERO-FROM THE DEATH OF SULLA TO THE
FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.-B. C. 78 TO B. C. 60.

Instability of the Sullan restoration-The opposition party-Its want of leaders
-Revolutionary attempt of the consul Lepidus-His defeat and death-
Quintus Sertorius holds out in Spain-Metellus Pius opposed to him-
Pompey associated with Metellus-His defeats-Decline of the influence of
Sertorius-His murder by Perperna-Defeat and execution of Perperna-
Outbreak of Spartacus and the Gladiators-They overrun Italy-Crassus
defeats and kills Spartacus-Pompey claims a share in the victory-Consul

PAGE

ship of Pompey and Crassus-Reversal of Sulla's acts-Restoration of the tribuneship and reform of the jury lists-Rise of Caius Julius Cæsar-His resistance to Sulla-He serves in Asia-Prosecution of Dolabella-Cæsar again leaves Rome-Adventure with the Pirates-He studies rhetoric at Rhodes-Supports Pompey-Restores the images of Marius-Rise of Marcus Tullius Cicero-His family and education-His one campaign-Speeches for Quintius and Roscius-He withdraws to Athens-His friendship with Atticus -He studies in Asia and at Rhodes-Returns to Rome and devotes himself to pleading causes-His quæstorship in Sicily-Prosecution of VerresRivalry with Hortensius and triumph of Cicero-Dedication of the Capitol -The Equestrian order-The war with the Pirates-Command conferred on Pompey by the Gabinian law-His brilliant success-Second Mithridatic War, and restoration of peace-Vast preparations of Mithridates-The death of Nicomedes III. brings on the third Mithridatic war—Mithridates defeats Cotta and besieges Cyzicus-Lucullus raises the siege, and defeats Mithridates in Pontus-Mithridates flies to Armenia-History of the country-The kingdom of Tigranes-Lucullus settles the affairs of Asia-He defeats Tigranes, takes Tigranocerta, and besieges Nisibis -Irruption of Mithridates into Pontus-Roman disasters-Mutiny in the army of Lucullus-Glabrio sent to supersede him-Pompey made generalissimo in the East-Cicero prætor-His speech for the Manilian law-Retirement of Lucullus-Pompey advances into Pontus-Flight of Mithridates to Bosporus-Pompey in Armenia-Submission of Tigranes-Pompey in the Caucasian lands-He marches into Syria-Death of Mithridates-Review of Syrian history-Syria made a Roman province-The kingdoms of Commagene and Edessa-Damascus and Arabia-Phoenicia and Cole-Syria— Palestine-REVIEW OF JEWISH HISTORY-Religious and moral state of the restored people-Hostility of the Samaritans-Their origin-Schismatic temple on Mount Gerizim-Hatred of the Jews and Samaritans-Bloodshed in the Jewish temple-Jaddua and Alexander the Great-Judæa under the Ptolemies-Simon the Just and Eleazar-The Septuagint version-Onias II. and Joseph the son of Tobias-Ptolemy Philopator at Jerusalem-Hyrcanus the son of Joseph-Palestine under Antiochus the Great-Story of Heliodorus -Reign of Antiochus Epiphanes-Hellenism in Judæa-Jason and Menelaus-Murder of Onias III.-Sack of Jerusalem by Antiochus-Massacre by Apollonius-Great persecution under Athenæus-Martyrdom of EleazarRevolt of Mattathias-Judas Maccabæus-His victories, dedication of the temple, treaty with Rome, and death-Jonathan Apphus secures peaceHis murder by Tryphon-Prosperous government of Simon Thassi-His murder-John Hyrcanus I.-Independence and extension of Judæa-Destruction of the temple on Gerizim and of Samaria-Quarrel with the Pharisees-Reign of Aristobulus I.-Alexander Jannæus-War with Ptolemy Lathyrus-Rebellion of the Pharisees-Their ascendancy under Alexandra-Aristobulus II. and Hyrcanus II.-Rise of Antipater-Civil War-Interference of the Romans-Pompey takes Jerusalem and profanes the temple-Its subsequent plunder by Crassus-Hyrcanus II. and Antipater-Escape and rebellions of Aristobulus and his sons-Deaths of Aristobulus and Alexander Caesar restores Hyrcanus, with Antipater as procurator-Rise of HerodMurder of Antipater-Hyrcanus in the hands of Herod-The Parthians restore Antigonus-Herod at Rome-Returns as king of Judæa-Capture of Jerusalem-End of the Asmonæan dynasty-Accession of Herod the GreatDeaths of Antigonus, Aristobulus, and Hyrcanus-Events at Rome during Pompey's absence-Consulship of Cicero and conspiracy of Catiline-Pompey returns to Rome-His political attitude and his triumph-State of partiesTrial of Clodius-Opposition of the Senate to Pompey-Cæsar in SpainHis return to Rome The first triumvirate

CHAPTER XXXV.

126-201

THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE AND THE GREAT CIVIL WAR.-FROM THE FIRST CON

SULSHIP TO THE DEATH OF CESAR.-B. C. 59 to B. C. 44.

Origin of the Civil War from the Consulship of Metellus-Its causes and character-First Consulship of Caesar-Measures of the Triumvirs — Procon

sulate of Cæsar-Position of Cicero-Clodius elected Tribune-Cicero's banishment and recal-Clodius quarrels with Pompey-Riots of Milo and Clodius-Meeting of the Triumvirs at Lucca--Partition of the Provinces -Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus-Dedication of Pompey's Theatre-Pompey remains at Rome-Crassus departs for Syria-Omens of disaster-He crosses the Euphrates and retires-Embassy from the Parthians-Crassus enters Mesopotamia-Tactics of the Parthians-The battle of Charræ-Death of the younger Crassus-Retreat to Charræ-Death of Crassus-Sequel of the Parthian war-Anarchy at Rome-Murder of Clodius-Pompey sole Consul-Trial of Milo: Speech of Cicero-Pompey joins the Optimates, and aims to strengthen himself against CæsarProrogation of his command-Caesar's Gallic War-First Campaign: The Helvetii and Germans-Second campaign: the Belgic tribes-Third campaign the Armoric nations-Fourth campaign: Cæsar crosses the Rhine, and invades Britain-Fifth campaign: second invasion of Britain: attacks on the winter quarters of the Romans-Sixth campaign: second passage of the Rhine-Seventh campaign: revolt of Gaul under Vercingetorix: Siege and capture of Alesia-Eighth campaign: complete subjection of Gaul-Cæsar in Cisalpine Gaul-Cicero's proconsulate in Cilicia— Measures of the Senate against Cæsar-He is declared a public enemy-Antony and Cassius fly to Casar's camp-Cæsar crosses the Rubicon - The great Civil War begins-Flight of the Pompeians to Brundisium and GreeceCæsar master of Italy-War in Spain: Defeat of Afranius and PetreiusCapture of Massilia-Cæsar dictator for eleven days-Cæsar in Greece: battle of Pharsalia-Flight of Pompey to Egypt-His death-Cæsar in Egypt-Cleopatra-The Alexandrine war-Cæsar in Pontus: Veni, Vidi, Vici-His return to Rome-Pardon of Cicero-African war: battle of Thapsus siege of Utica: death of Cato-Triumph of Cæsar-Reformation of the Calendar-Insurrection in Spain-Cæsar defeats the Pompeians at Munda-- His return to Rome as master of the empire-Dictatorship for life, and other honours - His gigantic projects The Conspiracy against his life-Character of Brutus-The Ides of March-Character of Cæsar-His admirers and imitators.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

PAGE

202-260

THE LAST CIVIL WAR: AND THE FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE.-FROM THE
DEATH OF CESAR TO THE BATTLE OF ACTIUM-B. C. 44 to B. C. 31.

Sequel of Cæsar's death-The conspirators and the people-The corpse of
Cæsar-Proceedings of Antony-Decision of the Senate-Hollow reconcilia-
tion-Cæsar's acts are confirmed and the provinces allotted-Cæsar's testa-
ment-Funeral oration of Mark Antony-Fury of the people-Government
of Antony-His use of Cæsar's papers - Octavius at Apollonia-His
decision on hearing of Cæsar's death-M. Vipsanius Agrippa-Octavius
returns to Italy-Claims his inheritance as C. Julius Cæsar Octavianus-
His interview with Cicero-He arrives at Rome-Omens of his greatness
He courts the Senate and people-His interview with Antony-Octa-
vian discharges Cæsar's bequests-His popularity-Apotheosis of Julius
-The Provinces - Cicero's Philippics' Antony leaves Rome-War of
Mutina-Defeat of Antony-Octavian breaks with the Senate, returns to
Rome, and becomes Consul-His coalition with Antony and Lepidus-
Second Triumvirate-Proscription-Murder of Cicero-Successes of Sextus
Pompeius-The Republicans in the East-Battles of Philippi-Deaths of
Brutus and Cassius-Partition of the Provinces-Antony and Cleopatra-
Confusion in Italy-War of Perusia-The Parthians in Syria-Antony
and Sextus before Brundisium-Reconciliation of the Triumvirs-Peace
with Sextus Pompey at Misenum-Ventidius defeats the Parthians-New
war with Sextus, and defeat of Octavian-Second reconciliation of Octa-
vian and Antony-Treaty of Tarentum-Agrippa's victory over Sextus
Pompey-Deposition of Lepidus-Death of Sextus-Extinction of the
Senatorial party-Honours heaped upon Octavian-Agrippa and Maecenas
-Antony and Cleopatra in the East-Antony's defeat in Parthia-His
Armenian campaign and triumph at Alexandria-Roman provinces given
to Cleopatra The Egyptian Court-Octavian's successful wars in the
Alps-His growing popularity-Final breach with Antony-War declared

against Egypt-Battle of Actium-Flight of Cleopatra and Antony
-Octavian lands in Egypt-Deaths of Antony, Cleopatra, and Cæsarion
-Egypt made a Roman province-Return and triumph of Octavian-
Epoch of the empire

PAGE

261-304

BOOK VIII.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN ITS GREATNESS; OR, THE CÆSARS AND THE

ANTONINES.

FROM AUGUSTUS TO COMMODUS.-B.C. 29 to A.D. 192.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE, AND THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS.

B. C. 29 to A.D. 14.

Octavian the sole ruler of the Roman world-Imperator and Censor for lifeCensus of the empire-The dignity of Princeps-He accepts the Imperium for ten years-The provinces of Cæsar, and of the Senate and people-The title of Augustus-The name of Cæsar-Augustus goes to Spain-His dangerous illnesses-Question of a successor-He receives the perpetual tribunitian and consular powers-His legislative and judicial functions The Emperor not above the laws-The popular assembliesState of the Roman people-The Senate and the Equites-The Imperial consuls, prætors, ædiles, and quæstors-The prefect of the city-Government of the provinces-Military organization-The Prætorian cohorts and Urban guards-The Legions-The fleet-Finances of the empire-Summary of the Imperial system-The family of Augustus-Livia and her stepsons-Octavia and Marcellus-Death of Marcellus-Marriage of Julia to Agrippa-Caius and Lucius Cæsar, and Agrippa Postumus-Descendants of Octavia and Antony-Genealogy of the "Six Cæsars"-Augustus in the East-The standards of Crassus recovered-The great Secular gamesAgrippa goes to the East-Augustus in Gaul-Description of the Danubian regions-Vindelicia and Rhætia conquered by Tiberius and Drusus-Consulship of Tiberius-Augustus Pontifex Maximus-Death of AgrippaMarriage of Tiberius to Julia-Drusus in Gaul-Account of the Germans and their land-The four campaigns of Drusus in Germany-His death and funeral-Conquest of Moesia-Tiberius in Germany-His retirement to Rhodes-Banishment of Julia-Advancement and deaths of Caius and Lucius Cæsar-Adoption of Tiberius-His campaigns in Germany and Illyricum-Intrigues against Augustus-Exile of Ovid-Catastrophe of Varus-Tiberius and Germanicus in Germany-Last days and death of Augustus 305-357

CHAPTER XXXVIII.

THE DEGENERACY OF THE CÆSARS; AND THE FLAVIAN DYNASTY.—
A.D. 14 to A.D. 96.

Tacitus and the history of the Cæsars-Accession, character, and first acts of Tiberius-Oath of allegiance taken by the Senate-Testament, funeral and apotheosis of Augustus-Scene between Tiberius and the Senate-Asinius Gallus-Election of magistrates transferred from the Comitia to the Senate -Mutinies of the legions in Pannonia and on the Rhine-Noble conduct of Germanicus-His campaigns in Germany-Burial of the remains of the legions of Varus-Retreat of Cæcina and Germanicus-Arminius and his brother-Victory of the Romans-Their final retreat beyond the Rhine -Recal of Germanicus-Drusus in Illyricum-War between the Cherusci and Marcomanni-Fate of Maroboduus and Arminius-Arminius worshipped as a hero-Germanicus in the East-Intrigues of Piso and Plancina-Death of Germanicus-Trial and death of Piso-Tacfarinas in Africa, and other wars-Government of Tiberius-Law of treason, informers and executions -Various internal measures-Earlier promise of Tiberius-Marked change in his character — Rise and influence of Sejanus - Drusus designated

as heir, and murdered by Sejanus The Prætorian camp formed at Rome-New victims of the informers-Tiberius quarrels with Agrippina - Withdraws to Capres-His occupations and alleged orgies - Death of Livia - Condemnation of Agrippina and her sons-Elevation and fall of Sejanus-Starvation of Drusus and Agrippina-Death of Tiberius -Accession of Caius Cæsar (Caligula)-His tyranny, madness, and death -Reign of Claudius-Mauretania and Britain-Seneca-Reign of Nero-His character, tyranny and death-The Jewish war-Galba, Otho, and Vitellius-Victory of Vespasian-The Flavian dynasty-Capture of Jerusalem -Civilis and the Batavians-Affairs of the East-Reign of TitusEruption of Vesuvius - Fire at Rome - The Colosseum-Reign and tyranny of Domitian-Dacian and Sarmatian wars-Campaigns of Agricola in Britain-Persecution of the Christians-Death of Domitian

PAGE

358-480

CHAPTER XXXIX.

CLIMAX OF THE EMPIRE.-NERVA, TRAJAN, AND THE ANTONINES.-
A.D. 96 TO A.D. 192.

:

The new empire has a constitutional character-Happiness of the new eraUnion of monarchy and liberty-Accession of Nerva-His character and origin-Clemency and government of Nerva-Discontent of the Prætorians -Nerva adopts Trajan-His death-Accession of Trajan-His extraction and character-His settlement of the German frontier-His entry into Rome-His magnanimity and firmness-Title of "Optimus"-First Dacian war, and submission of Decebalus-Second Dacian war-Trajan's bridge over the Danube-Death of Decebalus and conquest of Dacia-The forum and column of Trajan-Dacia a Roman province-Conquests in Arabia— Government of Trajan-Dignity and freedom of the Senate-Condition of the people-Trajan's economy and magnificence-Natural disasters at Rome-Parthian aggressions in Armenia-Trajan goes to the East-Earthquake at Antioch-Conquest of Armenia and Assyria-Capture of Ctesiphon -Trajan_on_the Persian gulf-His retreat to Antioch, and death in Cilicia-Epoch from which the empire began to recede-Accession and origin of Hadrian-His education and early career-His alleged adoption by Trajan-His system of policy-The conquests of Trajan abandoned― Hadrian's return to Rome-Dangers of the frontiers-Hadrian in Mosia -His first progress: Gaul: the Rhine: Britain: the "Vallum Romanum" Mauretania: Asia: Athens: Sicily: Rome: Carthage-Hadrian's second progress-His residence at Athens, and buildings there-Hadrian at Alexandria and Antioch-His works at Rome-The "Edictum Perpetuum" -Adoption and death of Ceionius Commodus Verus-Aurelius Antoninus is adopted by Hadrian, and himself adopts M. Annius Verus and L. Aurelius Verus-Death and character of Hadrian-Great merits of his government-Accession of Antoninus Pius-His origin and family-Association of M. Aurelius in the empire-Character of the two Antonines-The basis of their power was not despotic-State of the frontiers-The "Vallum Antonini" in Britain-Excesses of Faustina-Happy life and death of Antoninus-Accession of Marcus Aurelius, the Philosopher-His "Meditations"-His association of Lucius Verus in the empire-The Parthian war -Victories of Avidius Cassius-Government of Aurelius-The barbarians on the Danube-Pestilence brought from the East-The Emperors at Aquileia-Death of Verus-War upon the Danube-Victory over the Quadi-The Thundering Legion- Vices of Commodus and Faustina-Rebellion and death of Avidius Cassius-Aurelius at Antioch, Alexandria, and Athens-His triumph shared with Commodus-Persecution of the Christians-New war upon the Danube-Death of Aurelius Accession of Commodus-He purchases peace from the barbarians-Plot of Lucilla against his life-Rage of Commodus against the Senate-State of the provinces and frontiers-Revolt of Maternus-The ministers Perennis and Cleander-Profligacy of Commodus-His performances in the amphitheatre -His assumption of divinity-His monstrous arrogance-Death of Commodus-Epoch of the decisive decline of the Empire-Roman and Greek literature in the second century

481-528